bitpie|fdr

作者: bitpie
2024-03-07 18:40:22

如何通俗地解释错误发现率FDR( false discovery rate)? - 知乎

如何通俗地解释错误发现率FDR( false discovery rate)? - 知乎首页知乎知学堂发现等你来答​切换模式登录/注册统计如何通俗地解释错误发现率FDR( false discovery rate)?如题,维基百科没看懂。。关注者70被浏览349,571关注问题​写回答​邀请回答​好问题 3​添加评论​分享​7 个回答默认排序zighouse​码农​ 关注False discovery rate (FDR),误报率。\mathrm {FDR} ={\frac {\mathrm {FP} }{\mathrm {FP} +\mathrm {TP} }}=1-\mathrm {PPV} False discovery rate (FDR) 的真正的意思是“所有发现中发生了错误所占的比率”,也就是在计算所有的discovery中false(假发现)所占的比率。FDR常被人逐字翻译为“错误发现率”,这个翻译容易导致误解,个人认为译为“误报率”更好。另外,再补充一个相关的:False omission rate (FOR),我认为译为“错漏率”比较好。\mathrm {FOR} ={\frac {\mathrm {FN} }{\mathrm {FN} +\mathrm {TN} }}=1-\mathrm {NPV} 上面的式子中的 TP、TN、FP、FN分别为:TP (True Positive,真阳性) 指在阳性的实验样本上检测出的结果显示为阳性。TN (True Negative,真阴性) 指在阴性的实验样本上检测出的结果显示为阴性。FP (False Positive,假阳性) 指在阴性的实验样本上检测出的结果显示为阳性。FN (False Negative,假阴性) 指在阳性的实验样本上检测出的结果显示为阴性。PPV (Positive Predictive Value) 是阳性预测值,常被称为准确度(Precision)。NPV (Negative Predictive Value) 是阴性预测值。编辑于 2019-05-06 11:17​赞同 62​​4 条评论​分享​收藏​喜欢收起​何理何法生物信息phd,科密​ 关注最近也一直在困惑这个问题,我试试来谈谈自己的理解:在我们判断一件事情是不是显著之前,我们会有一个零假设 H0(也就是我们并不关心的事件),我们以检测某种疾病为例:我们的零假设就是健康的情况,我们真正关心的是某个人是否得病,首先我们根据健康人群某项身体指标(比如肌酐含量)构建统计模型如图一(概率分布图)图一: 根据某项指标(score)在人群中分布的情况建立的统计模型那么什么情况下我们拒绝零假设(认为得病呢),这时候我们取一个阈值,比如score大于17我们就要拒绝零假设认为有病,图二的红色部分面积就是我们常说的p_value,通常我们保证p值小于某个值(比如0.05)就可以保证在一次检测中出错的概率极小,即只有5%的概率检测出错。图二:当score大于某个阈值拒绝零假设(红色部分的面积为p_value)p值在一次检测中,我们很大概率上可以排除出错的情况,但是如果检测次数非常大的时候,我们就无法控制出错的情况(如果10000次检测,则可能有10000*5%=500次检测出错),这时候我们就需要多重假设检验来矫正错误,一种比较通用的方法就是 FDR (false discovery rate, 错误检出率),我对其意义的理解是所有判断得病的检测结果中经过我们统计模型得出来的部分所占的比例。图三:红色部分是实际检测的情况,蓝色是我们的统计模型这句话比较晦涩:比如说现在有10000个人参加检测,根据我们先前设定的阈值最后判断其中 519个人得病,而根据我们的统计模型判断其中有35个得病,那么 FDR = 35/519=6.7%。由于我们是根据健康的人群构建的模型,那么FDR存在的意义在于将总体的阳性检测结果中,让我们需要根据统计模型来判断得病的比例尽量少,因为这些经过统计模型判断得病的情况就是上面我们说的概率很小的本身没得病但是判断得病的情况,我们要尽量减少这样的情况(false discovery)。以上是我的一点理解,欢迎批评和指正编辑于 2017-08-09 20:41​赞同 72​​7 条评论​分享​收藏​喜欢

FDR | 国外免费高质量的设计资源 | Boss设计

FDR | 国外免费高质量的设计资源 | Boss设计

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FDR(FDR( false discovery rate) 错误发现率)_百度百科

FDR( false discovery rate) 错误发现率)_百度百科 网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心FDR是一个多义词,请在下列义项上选择浏览(共4个义项)展开添加义项FDR播报讨论上传视频FDR( false discovery rate) 错误发现率收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10FDR(false discovery rate),是统计学中常见的一个名词,翻译为伪发现率,其意义为是 错误拒绝(拒绝真的(原)假设)的个数占所有被拒绝的原假设个数的比例的期望值。1995年Benjamini和Hochberg首次提出了FDR的概念,并给出了在多重检验中对它的控制方法。然而,当时组学海量数据尚未大量出现,开始并未受到重视,甚至因为考虑了64个假设检验而受到质疑。数年之后,伴随着微阵列检测技术的发展、海量数据的大量出现使得FDR有了应用。中文名伪发现率外文名false discovery rate缩    写FDR首次提出1995年目录1提出定义2控制方法提出定义播报编辑Benjamini 和 Hochberg 的文章引用次数已经达到上万次,FDR的理论和应用研究也在不断走向成熟。FDR(false discovery rate) 的定义如下:其中 E(·) 为数学期望。同理, 我们可以得到假阴性发现率 (false negative discovery rate, FNDR) 的定义:FDR 的含义是错误拒绝(拒绝真的(原)假设)的个数占所有被拒绝的原假设个数的比例的期望值。FDR 具有以下优点:(1)可以灵活调整其取值,作为假设检验错误率的控制指标, 其控制值可以根据需要灵活选取 , 而传统的假设检验(FWER) 的取值则较为固定,通常定为0.05;(2)FDR 的意义明确,可以作为筛选出的差异变量的评价指标,而 FWER 则主要是用来控制I类错误的。FDR 与 FWER 两者的关系:当所有无效假设为真时,控制 FDR 和控制 FWER 等价;当 m0 < m 时( m0 为真实无差异变量的数目 ) ,控制 FDR 相当于弱控制 FWER。控制方法播报编辑控制是指决定一 个显著性水平的界值 , 从而使FDR 被限制在某一固定水平, 类似于 FWER 的控制,对此可以采用线性向上的控制方法, 分两步进行: 首先将所有检验的 p 值进行排序, 即 p ( 1) ≤ p ( 2) ≤ p ( 3) ≤ ...i≤ p ( m) ; 然后逐步后退比较 p ( i) ≤ q( i = m, m - 1, m -2, ..., 1) , 取第一个满足条件的 p ( k) ( k ≥1) , 理论上可以证明在此情况下可以将 FDR 控制在 q( 0 ≤ q ≤ 1) 水平下。上述方法需要满足各变量假设检验间是独立的条件 。在此基础上, 1999 年 Yekutieli 和 Benjamini 给出了一种改进的方法, 但其估计的 FDR 值略为保守,其思想是利用重复抽样的方法来计算 p 值, 可以在变量相关条件下控制 FDR 值 。同年 Benjamini 和 Liu 则提出了一种逐步向下 ( step- dow n) 的控制方法, 过程与BH 基 础 方 法 相 近, 只 是 对 p ( k) 的 控 制 方 法 不 同 。2000 年 Benjamini 和 Hochberg 提出了两阶段的 FDR控制, 以改进原有方法的保守性 ; 2001 年 Benjamini和 Yekutieli 对算法进行了进一步的改进 , 可用于不同变量检验间独立和相关不同条件下的 FDR 的控制,不足之处是其检验效能较低 。Benjamini 和 Hochberg在 2005 年提出了一种自适应线性向上的控制方法( a-daptive linear step- up, ALSU) , 这种方法的特点是在不同的显著水准下两次使用上述介绍的基础过程, 特别是在变量相关条件下得到的 FDR 估计较为稳健 .新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 Baidu 使用百度前必读 | 百科协议 | 隐私政策 | 百度百科合作平台 | 京ICP证030173号 京公网安备110000020000

富兰克林·罗斯福_百度百科

·罗斯福_百度百科 网页新闻贴吧知道网盘图片视频地图文库资讯采购百科百度首页登录注册进入词条全站搜索帮助首页秒懂百科特色百科知识专题加入百科百科团队权威合作下载百科APP个人中心富兰克林·罗斯福播报讨论上传视频美国第32任总统(1933-1945)收藏查看我的收藏0有用+10富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福(Franklin Delano Roosevelt,1882年1月30日-1945年4月12日) ,简称为FDR,华人称为“小罗斯福”,美国第32任总统(1933-1945),美国历史上首位连任四届(病逝于第四届任期)的总统。1911年,罗斯福进入纽约州参议院,直至1913年被威尔逊总统任命为助理海军部长,1920年辞职。1929-1932年,任纽约州州长一职,并于1932年大选击败胡佛,当选为美国总统。在1930年代经济大萧条期间,罗斯福推行新政以提供失业救济与复苏经济,并成立众多机构来改革经济和银行体系,从经济危机的深渊中挽救了美国。1941年,珍珠港事件发生后,罗斯福力主对日本宣战,并引进了价格管制和配给。罗斯福以租借法案使美国转变为“民主国家的兵工厂”,使美国成为同盟国主要的军火供应商和融资者,也使得美国国内产业大幅扩张,实现充分就业。二战后期同盟国逐渐扭转形势后,罗斯福对塑造战后世界秩序发挥了关键作用,其影响力在雅尔塔会议及联合国的成立中尤其明显。1945年4月12日,罗斯福在佐治亚州的温泉因突发脑溢血去世。罗斯福是第二次世界大战期间反法西斯同盟阵营的领导人之一,也是美国历史上在任时间最长的总统,他所发起的一些计划现在仍继续在美国的商贸中扮演重要角色,其任内设立的一些制度保留。他曾多次被评为美国最佳总统。 [1]2006年,被美国权威期刊《大西洋月刊》评为影响美国的100位人物第4名。中文名富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福外文名Franklin Delano Roosevelt别    名FDR,小罗斯福国    籍美国民    族荷兰族出生地纽约州海德公园出生日期1882年1月30日逝世日期1945年4月12日毕业院校哈佛大学、哥伦比亚法学院代表作品罗斯福自述:走出危机职    务美国总统信    仰新教主要成就连任四届(第四届任期未满)美国总统(史上任期最长的美国总统)推行罗斯福新政克服经济大萧条战胜美国国内孤立主义,成功对法西斯宣战带领美国赢得第二次世界大战胜利政    党美国民主党总统任期1933年3月4日-1945年4月12日目录1人物生平▪早年生活▪涉足政界▪克服危机▪二战初期▪三届连任▪美国参战▪四次当选▪猝然去世2为政举措▪政治▪经济▪外交▪影响3历史评价4轶事典故▪奇怪祝福▪狗在乎▪连任感想▪集邮大家▪罗斯福家族5人际关系6人物争议▪拘留令▪政策和立场▪苦肉计7后世纪念▪地名▪纪念馆人物生平播报编辑早年生活罗斯福与父亲 [2]1882年1月30日,富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福出生于美国纽约州海德公园。其父詹姆斯·罗斯福一世是外交界和商业界的活跃人物,其母萨拉·德拉诺是出身上层社会且受过国外教育的漂亮女性。经过母亲实施的启蒙教育之后,罗斯福随家庭教师学习拉丁语、法语、德语、书法、算术和欧洲历史。他们不想宠坏他,他的生活受到了严格的管束。五岁以前,母亲一直让他留着垂肩的金色卷发,穿着童装,以后又坚持要他穿她的祖先默里族特有的苏格兰式短裙,短裙前配有毛皮口袋,头戴典雅的苏格兰高地式帽子。快到8岁时富兰克林才说服母亲给他买了几套英国海员式的服装。1893年11岁的罗斯福1896年,罗斯福被送入以培养政界人物为目标的格罗顿学校,开始适应新的环境。他读书多,见识广,文质彬彬,酷爱体育,擅长网球、高尔夫球,爱好骑马和驾驶帆船。当时,格罗顿公学橄榄球盛行,他就主动组织了拉拉队,当管理员。他擅长辩论,是“辩论学会”会员。从格罗顿公学毕业后,他曾一度想进安纳波利斯海军学院,希望自己将来当一名海军军官,但是父亲坚决反对。1900年,罗斯福进入哈佛大学,攻读政治学、历史学和新闻学。这一年,他72岁的父亲去世,留下了12万美元的存款,其母从外祖父处继承了130万美元的遗产,大学时代的罗斯福十分热衷于社会活动,学习成绩并不突出,数次去欧洲旅行,喜欢球类活动。在哈佛他当了校刊《绯红报》的助理,他邀请担任纽约州长的堂叔西奥多·罗斯福到哈佛来讲演,于是报刊就吸收他为助理人员,恰此时老罗斯福作为麦金利的伙伴与民主党的威廉·詹宁斯·布赖恩竞选总统。他便主动提出访问校长,埃利奥特校长接见了他。罗斯福进攻性地对校长说:“如果你的投票代表你的信仰,你就应该乐意把你的影响放在天平上。”埃利奥特回答了他的问题。不但《绯红报》刊登了富兰克林的独家消息,美国的其它大报也纷纷作了转载。罗斯福快毕业时,升为该报的主编。为了保持声誉,他又在哈佛大学读了一年的研究生。1904年,罗斯福进入哥伦比亚法学院。1905年3月,与埃莉诺(西奥多·罗斯福总统的侄女)结婚。总统亲自参加了结婚仪式,使得婚礼非常隆重,但罗斯福发现,大多数人都是因总统而来,由此激发了他从政的决心。1907年,罗斯福从法学院毕业,进入律师事务所任律师。当时,他还为旅美侨领、中国致公党创始人司徒美堂在纽约成立的“安良总堂”当法律顾问长达10年之久。涉足政界1910年,罗斯福以美国民主党人的身份开始涉足政界。当他把这个决定告诉身为美国共和党人的总统堂叔时,对方怒而骂道:“你这个卑鄙的小兔崽子!你这个叛徒……。”但是罗斯福没有改变前进方向。他乘着一辆红色的汽车,每天进行10多次演说,最终当选了纽约参议员。任海军助理部长时的罗斯福,1913年1913年,威尔逊总统任命他为海军助理部长,他在任7年,表现突出,主张建设“强大而有作战能力的海军”。1919年,罗斯福为威尔逊的国际联盟计划奔走游说,结果导致1920年竞选副总统失败。此后,罗斯福出任马里兰信用与储蓄公司的副董事长,同时又重操律师业。此外,他还从事各种商业冒险活动。1921年8月,富兰克林·罗斯福带全家在坎波贝洛岛休假,在扑灭了一场林火后,他跳进了冰冷的海水,因此患上了脊髓灰质炎。高烧、疼痛、麻木以及终生残疾的前景,并没有使富兰克林·罗斯福放弃理想和信念,他一直坚持不懈地锻炼,企图恢复行走和站立能力,他用以疗病的佐治亚温泉被众人称之为“笑声震天的地方”。在康复期间,罗斯福大量阅读书籍,其中有不少传记和历史著作。1928年,在妻子的理解与支持下,罗斯福重返政界,参加州长竞选而险胜,于1929年出任纽约州州长(1930年再次当选州长)。 [19]克服危机参见:大萧条罗斯福宣誓就职1932年11月,作为民主党总统候选人参加竞选,提出了实行“新政”和振兴经济的纲领。政敌们常用他的残疾来攻击他,这是罗斯福终生都不得不与之搏斗的事情,但是他总能以出色的政绩、卓越的口才与充沛的精力将其变成优势。首次参加竞选他就通过发言告诉人们:“一个州长不一定是一个杂技演员。我们选他并不是因为他能做前滚翻或后滚翻。他干的是脑力劳动,是想方设法为人民造福。”依靠这样的坚忍和乐观,罗斯福终于在1933年以绝对优势击败赫伯特·克拉克·胡佛,成为美国总统。这时,正值经济大萧条的风暴席卷美国,到处是失业、破产、倒闭、暴跌。1933年3月4日,罗斯福在宣誓就职时发表了一篇富有激情的演说,告诉人们:我们惟一害怕的就是恐惧本身。提出了旨在实现国家复兴和对外睦邻友好的施政方针。罗斯福入住白宫后,对内积极推行以救济、改革和复兴为主要内容的“罗斯福新政”。“新政”抛弃了传统的自由放任主义,加强政府对经济领域的干预,实行赤字财政,大力发展公共事业来刺激经济。为了推行新政,罗斯福将一批具有自由主义色彩的律师、专家与学者组成智囊团,征询方针政策问题;通过"炉边谈话"方式,密切与人民群众的联系,与反对新政的最高法院进行坚决的斗争并成功地改组最高法院。3月9日至6月16日,美国国会应罗斯福总统之请召开特别会议。罗斯福先后提出各种咨文,督促和指导国会的立法工作。国会则以惊人的速度先后通过《紧急银行法》《联邦紧急救济法》《农业调整法》《全国工业复兴法》《田纳西河流域管理法》等。罗斯福1933至1934年的新政着重"复兴",主要措施有:维持银行信用,实行美元贬值,刺激对外贸易,限制农业生产以维持农产品价格,避免农场主破产;规定协定价格以减少企业之间的竞争,制止企业倒闭。1935-1939年的新政则着重"救济"和"改革",主要措施有:更为有力地运用行政干预,实行缓慢的通货膨胀,广泛开展公共工程建设和紧急救济,实施社会保险,以扩大就业机会和提高社会购买力;进行税制改革,根据纳税能力纳税,分级征收公司所得税和过分利得税等。罗斯福新政恢复了公众对美国政治制度的信心,强化了联邦政府机构。并由此使美国的工业、农业逐渐全面恢复。第一个任期终了的1936年,面对国民收入50%的增幅,罗斯福娓娓动听地描述道:“此时此刻,工厂机器齐奏乐曲,市场一片繁荣,银行信用坚挺,车船满载客货往来奔驰。”二战初期20世纪30年代中期,德、意、日法西斯在欧洲和亚洲形成两个战争策源地。然而,此时的美国盛行孤立主义。1935年,美国国会通过旨在使美国保持中立的皮特曼决议案。该决议案规定:战争时期禁止美国输出武器装备和信贷,而有效期为两年的"现购自运"条款则授权总统要求在美国购买非军事物资的交战国付现金并用本国船只装运。面对法西斯国家的侵略扩张,孤立主义和中立法无异于对侵略扩张的默许和纵容。为了引导美国及其公众作好反法西斯战争的准备,加强美国防务力量,罗斯福与孤立主义展开了坚决而富有艺术性的斗争。1937年富兰克林·罗斯福连任就职宣誓1937年10月,罗斯福在芝加哥参加新建大桥的落成典礼时发表演说,指出:“当某种传染性疾病开始蔓延的时候,为了保护居民的健康,防止病疫流行,社会许可并且共同对患者实行隔离。”“战争都会蔓延。战争可以席卷远离原来战场的国家和人民。我们决心置身于战争之外,然而我们并不能保证我们不受战争灾难的影响和避免卷入战争的危机。”“隔离演说”遭到猛烈抨击。乃至罗斯福事后不无后怕地说:“你想领个头,但回头一看,身后一个人也没有,这种情况多么可怕啊!”但是,“隔离演说”毕竟向美国公众指出了战争恐怖的存在。1938年1月,罗斯福在特别咨文中敦促立即增加20%的海军建设费。国会经过激烈辩论而于5月通过文森扩充海军法,准许以10亿美元发展海军。这一事实表明,大多数认真思考问题的美国人,已经看到战争的威胁并因而同意加强防务。1938年12月,在罗斯福的倡议下,泛美会议通过《利马宣言》,反映出美洲国家反法西斯的决心。1939年3月,德军进入布拉格之后,美国副国务卿代表总统谴责德国“肆无忌惮的不法行为”和“横行霸道”。9月,德波战争爆发之后,罗斯福不得不发表正式中立声明并实施中立法。在9月21日国会召开的特别会议上,罗斯福企图用禁运政策曾给美国带来的灾难——1814年国会大厦部分被焚来说服国会废除禁运条款,同时声称“当然,向诸位回顾这上点只不过是复述历史罢了”。经过国会内外的激烈辩论,国会通过中立法修正案,取消禁运条款,实行现购自运原则(现金购买,运输自理)。罗斯福随即予以签署。1940年5月,英法联军经德军打击而溃败。罗斯福要求国会追加国防拨款,加强战备。为了获得共和党人的支持,罗斯福任命亨利·史汀生为陆军部长,弗兰克·诺克斯为海军部长。在英国面临危亡的时刻,罗斯福开始向英国提供武器装备。三届连任1940年总统竞选初期,罗斯福的全部精力集中在扩军备战方面,在罗斯福的影响下,国会批准陆海军的扩充,伯克一沃兹沃思选征兵役法得到通过。9月2日,罗斯福与英国签署协定,将50艘驱逐舰转让给英国,英国则将部分海军基地租借给美国。此项协定意味着正式中立的结束,标志着美国有限参战的开始。1940年7月,当民主党人在芝加哥举行总统提名会议时,代表们仍不清楚罗斯福是否会寻求从华盛顿总统以来就没有先例的第三个任期。罗斯福白宫官方画像 [3]对此,罗斯福玩了一个小小的把戏。他通过参议员艾尔本·巴克利向提名会议发表声明,宣布他没有再任下一届总统的愿望和目的,并敦促代表们选举他们中意的无论什么人,然而又通过参议员利斯特·希尔把自己的名字列到提名名单上。然而,共和党总统候选人温德尔·威尔基却大肆发难:“选举罗斯福就意味着把他们的儿子、兄弟和情人送进坟墓。”大会开始酝酿投票。当写有罗斯福作为候选人的名单提交给大会的时候,整个会场乱作一团,代表们以嘘声和喝倒彩声表示强烈反对。罗斯福被迫改变策略,向选民保证他是主张和平的,甚至不惜许下诺言:“你们的孩子不会被送去参加任何外国的战争……我们防御的目的就是防御。”罗斯福夫人埃莉诺立时从纽约飞往芝加哥,在会内会外发表讲话,从而很快改变了会场气氛。她说:“1940年不是通常时期,而是战争迫近的非常时期,除了我们可以为整个国家利益做些什么这样的问题之外,我们不应为其他任何问题而进行争吵。”罗斯福夫人的话打动了代表们的心。当晚的报纸上都在显著位置刊登了罗斯福夫人的讲话,选民们的情绪也一下子倒向了罗斯福。当时由于世界战争频繁,为保证美国对外政策的一致性,美国人特别是孤立主义者不赞成领导人中途易人,所以55%的选民还是选择了罗斯福。因此罗斯福终于打破了美国“国父”乔治·华盛顿总统确立的传统,第三次当选为美国总统。1940年12月,正在拉丁美洲的加勒比海地区巡视的罗斯福收到时任英国首相丘吉尔的特急信件,内称为对付德国军事力量,英国需要大量武器装备,但英国财政不能为美国武器装备交付现金之日即将来临。于是,罗斯福在记者招待会上不提由美国贷款给英国或给英国军用物资的建议,却谈及平常的比方——“我”把花园浇水管借给家宅起火的邻居,以帮助邻居扑灭火灾,而灭火之后邻居是归还水管还是赔偿水管,都好商量;继而在炉边谈话中宣称:“我们必须成为民主国家的伟大兵工厂”“我要求我们的人民绝对相信我们的共同事业将取得巨大成功”。美国公众对此持赞成态度。1941年1月6日,罗斯福提请国会“授权并拨给充分的款项,去制造更多的军火和多种军用物资,以供移交现在同侵略国家进行实际战斗的国家”。3月11日,国会通过的租借法案(总统有权将武器装备租借给与美国安全有关的国家)经总统签署而生效。(60%供给英国,32%供给苏联)。租借法案的通过,使美国处于非交战状态,是美国积极干预反法西斯战争的重要里程碑。6月22日,苏德战争爆发之后,罗斯福谴责德国的侵略,宣布美国将援助苏联。8月,罗斯福和丘吉尔在纽芬兰举行会谈并发表《大西洋宪章》。该宪章宣称美国和英国不追求领土扩张,也不愿有违背有关民族意愿的领土变更,尊重各民族选择其政府形式的权利。美国参战罗斯福:国会珍珠港演说1941年12月7日,日本偷袭珍珠港,太平洋战争爆发。美国和英国向日本宣战。次日,德国和意大利则向美国宣战。美国正式参加第二次世界大战。对珍珠港事件负有责任的美国太平洋陆军司令沃尔特·肖特中将和太平洋舰队总司令赫斯本德·金梅尔海军上将于12月17日被解除职务。次年2月和3月,肖特和金梅尔分别以少将和海军少将军衔退役。为了赢得战争,罗斯福下令实施战争动员和改组军队指挥机构。战争结束前,美国武装部队员额达到1514万余人,其中陆军1042万人,陆军航空队230万人(飞机7万余架),海军388万余人(舰船4500艘),海军陆战队59万余人,海岸警备队24万余人。1941年6月成立的科学研究与发展局主管国防科技研究,主要成就有:雷达和电子设备的发展,实战用火箭、炸弹、导弹等的无线电引信,原子弹等。生产管理局于1941年春夏使美国逐渐完成向战时经济的转变。此后,供应品优先分配委员会、战时生产委员会、经济稳定委员会、战时动员委员会(机构职能或交叉,或承继)负责战争物资的生产与分配,保证了美国及其盟国的战争需要。新闻检查局和战时新闻局则负责美国的新闻与宣传工作。自1939年起,罗斯福就对年迈体弱的将军实行强制退役,提拔富有作战指挥能力的人员进入最高指挥阶层。1942年,罗斯福下令在原陆海军联合委员会的基础上,组建参谋长联席会议(由陆军参谋长乔治·马歇尔、海军作战部长欧内斯特·金、陆军航空队司令亨利·阿诺德及总统参谋长威廉·李海组成),对武装部队实施统一指挥。罗斯福在20世纪四十年代唤醒了美国对外干涉主义,同时他决定在二战后建立一个维持世界和平的组织——联合国。为了共同研究军事形势和制定联合作战计划,罗斯福和丘吉尔在华盛顿举行"阿卡迪亚"会议(1941年12月),达成的主要协议有:1942年和1943年美国的生产目标;成立"军需品分配委员会",统筹分配军需品,成立美英联合参谋长会议,协调盟军的联合作战;太平洋地区成立美英荷澳盟军司令部;组建中国战区(同时组建中缅印战区美军司令部);重申盟国战略为"欧洲第一"即首先战胜纳粹德国;拟定《联合国家宣言》。1942年元旦,在罗斯福的倡导下,美(罗斯福)英(丘吉尔)苏(李维诺夫)中(宋子文)等26个国家的代表在华盛顿签署《联合国家宣言》,国际反法西斯同盟正式形成,值得提出的是,在签字的时候,中国以“四大国”之一的身份签字,中国的国际地位空前提高。1月6日,罗斯福向美国国会发表国情咨文时所说:“千百万中国人民顶住了轰炸和饥荒,在日本武装和装备占优势的情况下仍然一次又一次地打击了侵略者。”2月7日,罗斯福致电蒋介石:“中国军队对贵国遭受野蛮侵略所进行的英勇抵抗已经赢得美国和一切热爱自由民族的最高赞誉。中国人民,武装起来的和没有武装的都一样,在十分不利的情况下,对于在装备上占极大优势的敌人进行了差不多五年坚决抗击所表现出的顽强,乃是对其他联合国家军队和全体人民的鼓舞。”。蒋介石,罗斯福,丘吉尔1942年上半年,北非英军屡遭失败,盟国面临的军事形势极为不利。为了摆脱军事困境和作为盟军不能于1942年在欧洲开辟第二战场的补偿,罗斯福不顾马歇尔的反对,和丘吉尔一道决定盟军实施北非登陆计划。北非作战消灭了该区的德意军队。1943年初,罗斯福和丘吉尔率领有关指挥与参谋人员赴摩洛哥的卡萨布兰卡,举行军事会议。会议决定:1943年进攻西西里,进攻法国的作战延至1944年。宣布轴心国无条件投降原则。在会议结束后的联合记者招待会上,罗斯福宣称:"法西斯轴心国必须无条件投降","这不是说要消灭德、意大利、日本的所有居民,但是确是要消灭这些国家里的基于征服和奴役其他人民的哲学思想"。8月同丘吉尔在魁北克举行会议,讨论盟军在法国开辟第二战场的“霸王”计划。从1943年起,同盟国由战略防御转为战略进攻。为了协调盟国的作战行动和探讨盟国的战后政策,罗斯福先后与盟国首脑举行一系列重要会议。1943年3月,罗斯福即与艾登谈及战后成立维持世界和平与安全的国际组织的问题。在罗斯福的努力下,国会同意美国参加此种国际组织。5月,罗斯福、丘吉尔及有关指挥与参谋人员在华盛顿举行"三叉戟"会议,决定:夺取亚速尔群岛以提供新的海空军事基础;加强对德国的空袭;训令艾森豪威尔在占领西西里之后即着手准备进攻意大利本土;次年5月1日为实施"霸王"计划的日期;制定详细计划,在太平洋地区发动打新的攻势。墨索里尼的法西斯意大利政府垮台之后,罗斯福和丘吉尔于8月魁北克召开"象限"会议,决定与新政府谈判停战。但是,盟军仍在为争夺意大利而与德军作战。晚年罗斯福 [4]1943年11月22日至1943年11月26日,罗斯福与英国首相丘吉尔、中国国民党总裁、中华民国国民政府主席和军事委员会委员长蒋介石在埃及首都举行开罗会议。会议讨论了中国和缅甸的军事形势并决定实施"安纳吉姆"计划,签署了三国"开罗宣言"。宣言规定,三国旨在剥夺日本自一战以来在太平洋地区所提的一切岛屿,使日本所窃取于中国之领土归还中国,使朝鲜获得自由与独立。要求日本无条件投降。开罗会议之后,1943年11月28日~1943年12月1日,罗斯福、丘吉尔一行即前往伊朗与苏联最高统帅斯大林举行德黑兰会议。会议主要讨论开辟欧洲第二战场、意大利地区的军事行动和太平洋的进攻作战、德国投降后苏联的对日作战、波兰边界、战后德国的处置以及建立战后维持世界和平与安全的国际组织等问题。会议重申盟军将于1944年5月实施"霸王"计划。罗斯福为了让马歇尔留在华盛顿,决定任命德怀特·戴维·艾森豪威尔为实施"霸王"计划的盟军最高司令。1944年6月5日(因气候原因而由5月1日延迟),盟军在法国诺曼底登陆,实施"霸王"作战计划,欧洲第二战场形成。1944年,第二次世界大战到了最紧要的关头,美国的总统大选也同时迫近。美国舆论普遍认为,关键时刻行政首脑不宜更替。美国民主党政府警告选民:“行到河中最好别换船。”四次当选罗斯福选中哈里·S·杜鲁门为自己竞选的伙伴。为了赢得竞选,罗斯福驳斥了共和党总统候选人托马斯·E·杜威的“疲惫不堪的老人”的抨击,公开了他的医生罗斯·麦金太尔海军中将向人出示的一份健康证明书的情景,并示威性地在恶劣的天气中进行竞选活动。第四次当选后发表就职演说的罗斯福 [5]1944年11月17日,罗斯福再次以53%的得票率第四次当选为美国总统。1944年他召开了一系列会议,在财政、贸易、食品和农业等领域实行比较开放的政策。任职后不久即赴温泉休养。1945年2月4日至2月11日,罗斯福、丘吉尔、斯大林在克里米亚半岛举行雅尔塔会议。会议主要讨论战后德国的处置、波兰、东欧政府、联合国、苏联对日作战等问题。会议重申纳粹德国必须无条件投降。二战结束后,美国的实力达到了巅峰。猝然去世罗斯福去世前一天的照片罗斯福希望建立一个有效的国际组织,即联合国,以维护战后和平。他原拟参加预定于1945年4月27日在旧金山开幕的联合国成立大会。但自1944年以来健康情况每况愈下。1945年4月12日,罗斯福在佐治亚州的温泉因突发脑溢血去世。在临终那天,他写下了这样两句话:“唯一阻碍着我们实现明天目标的就是对今天的疑虑。让我们怀着坚强而积极的信心奋勇前进吧!”在华盛顿举行完葬礼后,其遗体安葬在纽约州海德公园村(他出生的地方)。按照罗斯福的遗愿,美国设立罗斯福图书馆保存罗斯福的公私文件,供后人研究。 [6]在这一任期里,罗斯福只担任了73天职务就在佐治亚州与世长辞了。这样,富兰克林·罗斯福一连任了四届,12年又39天的总统,是第一位任期超过两届、打破华盛顿先例的总统。由于1951年通过的宪法修正案第二十二条的限制,他是美国历史上唯一一位任期达四届的总统。罗斯福连任4届总统,对于美国政治制度和世界反法西斯战争都是极为重要的。罗斯福空前绝后地连任四届美国总统,第二次世界大战的非常状态使美国人民赋予他巨大的权力。为政举措播报编辑主词条:罗斯福新政政治1933年,罗斯福在就职演说中表达了他对复兴国家经济的决心。因而怀抱各种不同政见的人都成为他的同盟者,其“新政”得以顺利实施。罗斯福使其政府成员在地理上、政治上均保持平衡,其中有自由派民主党员,也有保守派民主党员;有三位共和党员,还有一位女部长。他的立法计划面向广大选民,设法帮助美国经济中主要的利益集团,并争取共和党员的支持。1935年1月,第一例有关“新政”的案件被呈到美国联邦最高法院。 [7]此后,12个重要的新政法案被保守的最高法院否决。1937年2月5日,成功连任总统的罗斯福向国会提交一份司法改革法案, [7]提出联邦法官满70岁后6个月之内未退休,总统可任命一名新的法官到原法官工作之法院工作,最高法院大法官人数由9人增加为15人。这被称为“法院填塞计划”。在1937年3月的“炉边谈话”中,罗斯福称,最高法院的法官们已经越界,变成“国会的第三党派”,他是为了给最高法院注入新鲜血液,法官们应该明白美国人生活中的新变化。 [7]罗斯福的计划引发巨大争议。 [7]1937年3月,国会仅仅通过了规定法官退休内容的《最高法院退休制度法案》,“填塞”计划受到重挫。最高法院也转变态度,于3月29日以5票对4票的结果,支持华盛顿州的最低工资立法。 [7]当年5月,保守派大法官德万特退休,罗斯福得以按照自己的意志提名新的大法官。此后5年中,原来9名大法官中有7人退休或死去,罗斯福几乎重新完全塑造了最高法院。 [7]经济①整顿财政金融体系:银行休业整顿,恢复银行的信用,这是一种应急性措施,旨在迅速稳定金融资本市场。真正具有改革性意义的措施则是通货膨胀的货币政策和赤字财政政策,它实际上是凯恩斯货币理论的具体实践。这一货币政策的推行必然是宣布美元贬值。美元贬值可以提高美国商品在国际市场的竞争力,从而刺激出口,带动国内经济的发展。同时也有利地促进美国国内公共工程事业的发展。庞大的工程开支,来自于政府的财政干预,部分开支就是美元贬值造成通货膨胀所得。但是由于美国的世界经济霸主地位,美元贬值必然加剧其它各国的经济困难,推迟了他们的经济复兴。 [2]②加强对工业的计划指导。中心措施是通过工业复兴法,其目的在于防止盲目竞争引起生产过剩。但并未触及企业的所有制。其中有关工资标准和工作日时数的规定,则起了扩大消费、提高生活水平、缓解社会矛盾的作用。③调整农业的政策。实际上是政府通过奖励补偿等手段来压缩农业产量,调整农业生产结构。这样有利于稳定农产品价格,改善农业生产环境,利于环境保护。国家收购农产品等措施则起了国家监督调节经济的作用。 [3]④推行“以工代赈”。兴办公共工程等系列措施,实际上通过扩大内需来刺激生产发展,起到了调节生产与消费矛盾的作用,同时由国家调节再分配。 [4]外交睦邻政策1933年,罗斯福政府承认苏联并与之建立外交关系,同时为了搞好与拉丁美洲之间的关系,提出了“睦邻政策”。早在罗斯福上台之初,在其就职演说中声称:“在世界政治领域里,我将使本国遵循睦邻政策。”随后,美国对拉美政策作了某些调整。主要包括两个方面:在政治上,主张任何美洲国家不应干涉另一个美洲国家的内政;在经济上,则要奉行美洲国家之间互惠贸易协定。富兰克林·罗斯福1933年12月,在乌拉圭首都蒙得维的亚举行的第七次泛美会议上,美国国务卿赫尔代表罗斯福政府首次签字同意美洲各国互不干涉内政的原则,表示要放弃对美洲各国的“干涉权”。1934年5月29日,罗斯福总统签署了一项条约,废除了1903年签订的允许美国干预古巴事务的“普拉特修正案”,而美国将保留对关塔那摩海军基地的支配权。在墨西哥放弃驻军的权利。在海地和尼加拉瓜撤出了美国占领军。在巴拿马放弃其干涉内政的权利。在经济上,美国与拉美国家签订“互惠贸易协定”,增加对拉美各国的“经济援助”。1934年8月美国同古巴签定美国同拉美国家间的第一个贸易互惠协定。到1939年底,美国已同11个拉美国家签订了贸易互惠协定。值得指出的是,罗斯福政府的“睦邻政策”并没有真正停止对拉美国家内政的干涉。实际上,在两次大战之间,美国政府也还时常采用包括武装干涉在内的各种手段干预拉美国家事务。著名的例子有:1933年古巴独裁者马查多被推翻与圣马丁政府上台以后,罗斯福就曾派遣30艘兵舰,进行干涉;1934年美国训练的尼加拉瓜国防军,谋杀了尼加拉瓜的民族英雄桑地诺将军;以及支持与扶植拉美地区反动独裁政府。罗斯福政府的“睦邻政策”为美国资本进入拉丁美洲地区创造了有利条件,美国垄断财团在拉美获得了丰厚的利润。据统计,1930至1938年九年中,美国垄断组织在拉美以利润、利息和其他方式获得的收入达到13.1亿美元。到二战前夕,美国在拉美进出口份额上已大大超过英国;美国在拉美的投资额已接近英国;美国垄断组织控制了拉丁美洲很大份额的铁矿、铜矿、白银、锌及石油的开采。富兰克林·罗斯福黑白照(15张)罗斯福政府的“睦邻政策”还有利美国对拉美地区政治的控制。拉美各国,尤其是一些南美国家,对与自己同处美洲大陆,并与自己一样通过独立战争获得独立的美国原本抱有一种亲近感,1823年的《门罗宣言》也曾在拉美国家中引起积极的反响。但美国的形象逐渐被自己在拉丁美洲的侵略扩张行为破坏了。1880~1914年,美国鼓吹整个西半球地区具有共同的感情和共同的利益,试图在整个西半球范围内组建一个国家联盟。在美国国务卿詹姆斯·布莱恩的倡议下,第一届泛美会议于1889年在华盛顿举行,1901年在墨西哥召开第二次泛美会议,在布宜诺斯艾利斯举行的第四届美洲国家国际会议上,建立了泛美联盟,成为一个常设机构,并由美国国务卿担任常任主席。但由于美国在这一时期在拉美采取咄咄逼人的侵略行径,拉丁美洲各国对美国的动机抱有怀疑与担心,所以在20世纪的前30年对美国的建立国家联盟的想法不太热心。又由于历史文化上拉丁美洲与欧洲大陆地区有着千丝万缕的联系,拉美国家甚至出现了想通过国联实行联欧抗美的趋势。但自1933年罗斯福在蒙得维的亚举行的第七次泛美会议上宣布其“睦邻政策”后,泛美主义在美洲大陆重新抬头。美国在二战前夕和二战时期多次召集泛美会议,按美国的旨意统一美洲各国对二战的态度。大战结束以后,美国为了镇压拉丁美洲日益增长的人民民主革命运动,以反对来自西半球以外的“共产主义威胁”为借口,于1948年3月至5月在波哥达召开了第九次泛美会议。这次会议把组织较为散漫的“泛美体系”,改组为“美洲国家组织”,把原有的“泛美联盟”改为这一新组织的秘书处。泛美会议和美洲国家组织成了美国利用来控制拉美各国的政治工具。 [5]二战政策1941年8月,罗斯福和英首相丘吉尔会于军舰上,并发表联合新闻公报,宣布《大西洋宪章》,包括民族自决、扩大经济机会、消除恐惧与匮乏、海上自由、裁军等内容。雅尔塔会议“三巨头”1941年12月7日,日本突然偷袭珍珠港,太平洋战争爆发。12月11日,德、意对美宣战。参战后,罗斯福动员了全部工业积极从事军事生产。此时美国的军工生产约为德、日之总和;1944年则达到轴心国生产之两倍。战争期间,他将精力专注于战略问题,与盟国磋商未来之和平规划。1943年1月,宣布轴心国必须无条件投降这一原则。他认为战争与和平之维护有赖于与苏联保持友好关系。1943年,罗斯福、丘吉尔与斯大林在德黑兰会晤。罗斯福与斯大林相处颇为融洽。1945年2月,三巨头再度在克里米亚的雅尔塔会晤,那时欧洲战场战争已近尾声。美国预计日本能再战1年半左右。原子弹虽在制造,但美未曾预计其威力能达到后来实际发生的巨大程度。罗斯福及其军事顾问急欲争取苏联在亚洲出一臂之力。斯大林许诺了对日作战。罗斯福、丘吉尔也在远东向苏联作出让步。罗斯福希望建立一个有效的国际组织,即联合国,以维护战后和平。建立联合组织在大西洋会议上,罗斯福就有意建立一个联合的组织机构来避免战争,并且希望战后能建立一种所有民族都能共享的和平。“应当通过组成一支联合的力量来削弱德国的势力” [8]。所以,这个时期要建立的国际组织,应当有更明确的准则来规范各个国家 [9]。参战以后,罗斯福的集体安全思想有了更全面的发展。1941 年 12 月 22 日,阿卡迪亚会议期间,罗斯福就曾建议以“联合国家”的名义发表一份声明 [10]。1942 年春天,苏联外交部长维亚切斯拉夫·米哈伊洛维奇·莫洛托夫访美时,罗斯福表达了自己关于战后安全结构的设想。他认为美国、苏联、英国还有中国应当维持世界的治安,“如果有破坏和平的事发生,‘四警察’应当首先封锁和平的破坏者,然后攻击破坏者,使其屈服” [11]。这四个主要的盟国应监管其负责的世界的各个地区,维护和平,防止侵略 [9]。1943年初,罗斯福与赫尔、韦尔斯等人多次讨论国际组织计划时,进一步确立了大国警察思想,并且把使用武力的权力明确限制在“四警察”手中。但随后罗斯福发现,利用“四警察制”在运行过程中,关于四个国家各自负责的范围很难达成一致 [12],于是在德黑兰会议上,罗斯福提出了关于强权统治战后世界的思想 [9]。在与斯大林的私人会议上,罗斯福提议建立一个以联合国家为基础的战后维护和平的国际组织问题。这个世界性组织包括:“一个由 35 至 40 个会员国组成的机构,将定期在各地召开会议;一个包括美、英、苏、中在内的 10 个国家执行委员会,将处理一切非军事性问题;由美、英、苏、中四大国组成的‘四个警察’ 机构,将有权直接处理对和平的任何威胁行为,或者任何需要采取行动的突然出现的紧急状况。” [13]由此可见,此时罗斯福关于战后的集体安全的设想已渐渐发生改变,由之前的“四警察”负责,转变为建立国际组织 [9]。影响在罗斯福死后对美国和世界政治而言,其妻埃莉诺仍然是一个强有力的存在。她出席会议决定联合国设立,并且捍卫公民权利。许多罗斯福政府的旧成员在杜鲁门政府、肯尼迪政府、以及约翰逊政府担任主导的作用,这些人没有一个不是怀抱着罗斯福的政治遗产。历史评价播报编辑时任英国首相温斯顿·丘吉尔:①的确,罗斯福可以说是在战争的最高潮的时刻,而且正当最需要他的权威来指导美国政策的时候死去的。……我跟这位卓越人物的关系,在我们共同工作的漫长而充满惊涛骇浪的岁月中,曾经起过极其巨大的作用。现在这些关系已经告终,一种深沉而无可挽回的损失之感把我压倒了。……(致罗斯福夫人的电报)请接受我对于你的悲痛的损失的最深切的同情。这也是英国和全世界各地自由事业的损失。②我钦佩他是一个政治家,实干家和军事领导人。我极其信赖他的正直、感人的品格和见识,我对他还有一种今天无法用语言表达的个人的尊重――我应该称它为情谊。他爱他的祖国,尊重它的宪法,和他判断变化不定的舆论倾向的能力,这些始终是有目共睹的。但是此外还得加上他那颗跳动不已的宽宏大量的心,这颗心经常因见到强国对弱国的侵略和压迫的种种现象而激起愤怒,采取行动。如今这颗心永远停止跳动了,这的确是一个损失,人类一个痛苦的损失。(《第二次世界大战回忆录》) [22]富兰克林·罗斯福(15张)美国记者约翰逊在罗斯福传记中写道:"他推翻的先例比任何人都多,他砸烂的古老结构比任何人都多,他对美国整个面貌的改变比任何人都要迅猛而激烈。然而正是他最深切地相信,美国这座建筑物从整个来说,是相当美好的。"《美国史》作者拉夫尔·德·贝茨:罗斯福或许还不能被认为是一个知识界领袖,在许多领域,他的造诣并不深,也不是一个见地卓绝的思想家。 或许正因为如此,罗斯福才不像丘吉尔那样,事必躬亲。而强大的‘智囊团’弥补了他专业知识的缺陷,保证了他政治上的成功。罗斯福的传记作家让·爱德华·史密斯:他把自己从轮椅上举起,把整个国家自屈服中解放。阿瑟·施莱辛格《外交事务》:罗斯福是一个忠实的威尔逊主义者,他相信集体安全是国家安全的最终目标,他的战时政策保证了美国成为联合国的一个成员,作为威尔逊的信徒,罗斯福实现了威尔逊集体安全的理想。 [14]轶事典故播报编辑奇怪祝福1887年,5岁的罗斯福跟随父亲去见当时的总统格罗弗·克利夫兰,克利夫兰对自己担当的职位感到厌倦,他拍了拍罗斯福的头,说:“小伙子,我对你的希望听上去很奇怪。那就是:你最好永远不要当美国总统。” [15]狗在乎罗斯福纪念馆里的雕像在1944年的一次访问期间,有传言称罗斯福不慎将他的爱犬法拉丢在了阿拉斯加的阿留申群岛上,为了找回法拉,他竟然下令派遣一艘驱逐舰去营救法拉。此时,正值总统大选之际,共和党人借此机会对其大加攻击,罗斯福大胆回击:“对于共和党人的攻击,我不在乎,我妻子不在乎,我的儿子也不在乎,但我的狗法拉,它在乎!”罗斯福语出惊人,迅速变被动为主动,重新赢得选民支持。如今,在华盛顿的罗斯福塑像旁,也伫立着法拉的塑像。连任感想1944年11月17日,罗斯福第四次连任美国总统(就任72天后逝世)。《先驱论坛报》的一位记者采访他,就他连任总统之事问他有何感想。罗斯福笑而不答,请记者吃一片三明治。记者觉得这是殊荣,很快就吃下去了。罗斯福又请他吃第二片,记者受宠若惊,又吃下去了。这时,罗斯福又请他吃第三片,虽然肚子已不需要了,但他还是硬着头皮吃下去。这时罗斯福微笑着说:“现在已经不用回答你的问题了,因为你已经有了亲身的感受。”集邮大家幼年的罗斯福与母亲罗斯福从10岁时就开始集邮了,而且终生不渝。当他1945年逝世时,已收藏邮票120多万枚,后来他的部分邮票被其亲人卖了20多万美元。而在他任职总统期间,美国集邮人数从200万一跃达到900万,邮票销售增长了6倍。热爱集邮的罗斯福总统,极关心邮票的发行,尽管身为总统,公务繁重,他却不止一次的参与了邮票的设计工作。据统计,罗斯福在连任4届总统期间,亲自参与邮票设计达6枚;参与邮票发行3套。而且他还参与了有关中国内容的邮票构图设计和发行。1935年11月22日发行的《横渡太平洋》面值25分航空邮票,1937年2月15日发行的《中国飞剪号飞船》面值20分和50分航空邮票的构图设计方案,基本上都出于罗斯福总统之手。罗斯福家族罗斯福全家福富兰克林·罗斯福的远房叔叔西奥多·罗斯福是第26任美国总统 [16],故在中文环境里常称富兰克林·罗斯福为“小罗斯福”总统,而称西奥多·罗斯福为“老罗斯福”总统。美国人通常以其姓名英文缩写FDR称之。 [17]罗斯福是英语化的荷兰姓“vanRosevelt”或“vanRosenvelt”,原意为“玫瑰田”。作为纽约州最富有和最古老的家族之一,罗斯福家族在政治以外的其他领域也卓然有成。罗斯福的堂姐埃伦·罗斯福是1890年美国国家网球锦标赛女子单打和双打冠军,并入选国际网球名人堂。罗斯福的母亲用她最喜欢的叔父富兰克林·德拉诺的名字为罗斯福取名。德拉诺家族的祖先于1621年来到美洲,名为菲利普·德拉诺耶(PhilipedelaNoye),是第一位在新世界登陆的雨格诺派新教教徒。其家族姓氏随后英语化,变成了德拉诺(Delano)。人际关系播报编辑人物关系中文名英文名父亲詹姆斯·罗斯福一世James Roosevelt I母亲萨拉·安·德拉诺·罗斯福Sara Ann Delano Roosevelt兄弟詹姆斯·罗斯福·罗斯福(同父异母)James Roosevelt Roosevelt妻子安娜·埃莉诺·罗斯福Anna Eleanor Roosevelt长女安娜·埃莉诺·罗斯福·达尔·波蒂格·霍尔斯特德Anna Eleanor Roosevelt Dall Boettiger Halsted二儿子詹姆斯·罗斯福二世James Roosevelt II三儿子埃利奥特·罗斯福Elliott Roosevelt四儿子小富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr.五儿子约翰·阿斯平沃尔·罗斯福John Aspinwall Roosevelt来源:人物争议播报编辑拘留令富兰克林·罗斯福的民权记录一直受到很大争议。在第二次世界大战期间,罗斯福于1942年作出最后决定下令拘留日裔、意大利裔、和德裔美国人(许多人一直到战后才释放)。自1960年代起,他被指控不采取果断的行动以防止制止大屠杀造成6百万犹太人死亡。批评者指出,在1939年大屠杀发生时,936位犹太难民在圣路易斯号客轮上被剥夺了庇护权,不允许其进入美国。政策和立场在罗斯福当政期间以及其过世后,对罗斯福的批评不只是质疑其政策和立场,而且还质疑其巩固权力的做法独裁。这都是因为他长期担任总统、于两个重大危机时对人民的贡献、以及他个人强大的人气。罗斯福任内迅速扩大的政府重新定义在美国政府所应扮演的角色,并且罗斯福所宣传的社会计划重新定义子孙后代心目中的自由主义。 [21]罗斯福扎实地确立美国在世界舞台上的领导作用,并就如他四大自由演说所揭橥的,在战时及战后为美国所扮演积极角色奠立了基础。然而,对罗斯福政府内部重大的间谍指控,如阿尔杰·希斯和哈里·迪克特·怀特,导致某些人指责罗斯福政府过于迁就斯大林。苦肉计在珍珠港事件爆发前,美国方面发现了日本企图发动偷袭的很多蛛丝马迹,但最终未能躲过劫难,遭到巨大损失。针对这一事实,国际上曾提出“苦肉计”之说,认为罗斯福为了摆脱国内孤立主义势力的阻挠,顺利参加反法西斯战争,实施了“苦肉计”,试图用珍珠港事件的巨大损失来激怒美国民众的情绪,压制孤立主义势力。 [18]对于这个观点,论据有以下几个:1、罗斯福事先知道了日本要偷袭珍珠港的情报。美国海军情报官劳伦斯·萨福德中校破译了日本联合舰队向珍珠港开进的详细情报,这份极有价值的情报由海军作战部长斯塔克中将送到了白宫,然而,罗斯福却只说了句:知道了!2、罗斯福在得知这份情报后,密电海军太平洋舰队司令赫斯本德·金梅尔海军中将,让他立即把航空母舰从珍珠港调到外海,照例进行训练,而其他舰船一律留在港内;3、在金梅尔接到总统密电后,美军太平洋舰队通信参谋莱顿中校也破译了日军的密码,并将其送到金梅尔的办公室,而金梅尔却不屑一顾地将其扔在桌上,只是对莱顿说:“军人最大的弱点是惊惶失措。这没有什么!你已尽到职责了,可以走了,但是,不要把这件事情告诉任何人。”4、当海军作战部长斯塔克再次接到日本政府让驻美大使野村务必在华盛顿时间8日凌晨1时将最后通牒送达美国政府的情报后,心知肚明的他只说了句明天和总统汇报,然后就到国家剧院观看《学生王子》去了。5、美国陆军情报局远东情报科科长布拉顿上校在12月7日早晨将侦知的日军将进攻东南亚的情报向陆军参谋长马歇尔汇报时,却找不到马歇尔。直到11时,才在阿林顿公园里找到正在那里牵着一只白毛黑斑狗骑着马散步的马歇尔。马歇尔似乎事先知道一样,平静地继续散步。但即使美国高层害怕泄密,也应该在大战即将来临之际想方设法加强珍珠港太平洋舰队的实力。事实上在1941年初,太平洋舰队包括1艘航空母舰、3艘战列舰、4艘巡洋舰、17艘驱逐舰在内四分之一的作战力量被调拨给了大西洋舰队。此外,海军部还把舰队中素质最好的指挥官和水兵也成批调往大西洋舰队。为此,金梅尔曾多次向海军作战部长斯塔克陈述加强太平洋舰队实力的重要性。他在1941年9月12日写给斯塔克的信中言语恳切地说:“一支强大的太平洋舰队,无疑是对日本的威慑,而弱小的舰队也许会引来日本人……在我们能够保持足够对付日本舰队的兵力之前,我们在太平洋是不安全的。”但海军部却丝毫不理会金梅尔的呼吁。1995年9月5日,时任美国总统克林顿收到一名名叫海伦·哈曼女士的来信。她在信中称她的父亲史密斯曾向她讲述过一些关于珍珠港事件的惊人内幕,在二战时她父亲任美军后勤部副主管。她父亲说,珍珠港事件爆发前不久,罗斯福总统紧急召开了一个由极少数军官参加的秘密会议。总统在会议上透露了一个惊人的消息:美国高层已经预见到日本海军将要偷袭珍珠港,可能造成大量人员伤亡和财产损失。他命令与会者尽快准备将一批医务人员和急救物资集结到美国西海岸的一个港口,随时待命启运。罗斯福总统特别强调禁止将会议内容向外透露,包括珍珠港的军事指挥官和红十字会的官员。面对与会官员的惊讶与不解,罗斯福解释说,只有当美国本土遭到攻击时,犹豫不决的美国民众才会同意他宣布投入战争。这封信引起了很大轰动,但哈曼不是当事人,而她父亲史密斯又已于1990年去世,人们无法从中得到更加详尽和更有说服力的材料。克林顿收到信后不久,美国红十字会夏威夷分会的工作人员在查阅该会1941年至1942年财政年度报告的影印件和有关国家档案时,意外发现美国红十字会和美军后勤医疗部队在珍珠港事件前一两个月曾进行过非常规的人员和储备物资紧急调动。例如,在那段时间里,夏威夷分会通过正常渠道从国家红十字会总部得到价值2.5万美元的医疗急救物品,同时,还通过秘密渠道接收到价值5万美元的药品和物资。这批额外补给,在偷袭珍珠港事件后的急救工作中发挥了重要作用。1941年11月的美国红十字会总部的月度报告也显示,那个月夏威夷分会共接收了2534名医护人员,其中1505名是被秘密调去的临时人员。有关人员还从夏威夷红十字分会会长阿尔弗雷德·卡瑟尔的弟弟威廉·卡瑟尔的日记中发现:12月6日,夏威夷分会的全体人员奉命战备值班。美国史专家查尔斯·比尔德和作家约翰·托兰等人分析认为:面对国内浓厚的孤立主义情绪,具有远见卓识的罗斯福总统和他的高级幕僚们为了使美国在纳粹德国和日本法西斯全面征服欧亚大陆之前投入战争,上演了这出“苦肉计”。同时,为了减少损失,他又将3艘航空母舰调出了珍珠港,并通过秘密渠道不露声色地运去大批医护人员和急救物资。但由于人们仍未找到最有力的直接证据,有关“苦肉计”之说仍然是一个未解之谜。后世纪念播报编辑罗斯福始终被列为史上最伟大的美国总统之一,与亚伯拉罕·林肯和乔治·华盛顿并列。 1999年C-SPAN的民调发现,学术界的历史学者广泛地认为亚伯拉罕·林肯、乔治·华盛顿和罗斯福是三位最伟大美国总统,这与其他的民调结果相符。根据盖洛普民调结果,罗斯福是第六位20世纪以来最受美国公民尊敬的人。 [20]罗斯福美分罗斯福在海德公园的家现在是一个国家历史遗址(英语:National Historic Sites (United States))暨其总统图书馆所在地。他在乔治亚州沃姆斯普林斯的休息所,是座由乔治亚州营运的博物馆。他在坎波贝洛岛的夏天别墅名为罗斯福坎波贝洛国际公园(英语:Roosevelt Campobello International Park)由美国和加拿大政府所共同维护。该公园可经由富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福桥抵达。罗斯福的头像出现在10美分硬币上(美国人亦称其为罗斯福10美分)。许多公园和学校,以及一艘航空母舰和一座巴黎的地铁站以及在美国及世界各个角落数以百计的街道和广场都以他的名字命名。地名法国里昂BRON区有条街道名为富兰克林·罗斯福街。台湾台北市与新店区间有一条六线(部份八线)大道,称作罗斯福路,即纪念罗斯福总统。1945年至1949年间,天津市和平区的和平路,当时曾名为罗斯福路。为纪念罗斯福总统对反法西斯战争的贡献和对中国抗战的援助,“国立罗斯福图书馆”在重庆设立后,于1947年5月1日正式对重庆市民试开放。1949年11月30日,其更名为“国立西南人民图书馆”。1955年5月,与原重庆市人民图书馆、原重庆市北碚区图书馆三馆合并,组成“重庆市图书馆”。1987年,更名为“重庆图书馆”。2007年重庆图书馆迁往新址后,原址作为“罗斯福图书馆旧址”对外开放,主要收藏第二次世界大战与抗日战争重要历史文件。2019年1月22日,“国立罗斯福图书馆”的复刻版“重庆图书馆两江国际影视城分馆”正式对外开放。1962年,连接美国缅因州卢贝克的缅因州国道189和加拿大新不伦瑞克省的坎波贝洛岛的大桥建成,该桥被命名为富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福大桥。纪念馆罗斯福纪念馆坐落于美国华盛顿特区,与位于潮汐湖旁的杰弗逊纪念堂为邻。罗斯福和埃莉诺的墓地新手上路成长任务编辑入门编辑规则本人编辑我有疑问内容质疑在线客服官方贴吧意见反馈投诉建议举报不良信息未通过词条申诉投诉侵权信息封禁查询与解封©2024 Baidu 使用百度前必读 | 百科协议 | 隐私政策 | 百度百科合作平台 | 京ICP证030173号 京公网安备110000020000

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导航 导航 Biographies and Features Franklin D. Roosevelt FDR Biography FDR Birthday FDR: From Budget Balancer to Keynesian Rare Footage: FDR Addresses NIH,1940 Four Presidential Inaugurations Perskie Portraits FDR and Polio Federal Government Employee Unions Genealogy Facts & Figures: FDR Franklin D. Roosevelt's Presidency FDR's Naval Manuscripts FAQ: Marriage and Family FDR and Ice Yachts Eleanor Roosevelt Great Depression & New Deal World War II Roosevelt Era Characters & Events Morgenthau Holocaust Project Timeline: FDR Day by Day Research the Archives The Pare Lorentz Center Student Resources Summer Activities Blog Social Media 网页内容展示 网页内容展示 Biography: FDR "The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much; it is whether we provide enough for those who have too little." -- FDR, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1937. View More A Third Term? As President Franklin D. Roosevelt neared the end of his second term speculation began about his successor. There was no constitutional barrier to a third term at that time. But no president had ever exceeded the two-term precedent established by George Washington. View More FDR's Birthday The anniversary of Franklin’s birth became a great cause for celebration every year, and throughout his life FDR would use the occasion to honor devoted friends as well as to raise money in the fight against polio. View More FDR: From Budget Balancer to Keynesian A president's evolving approach to fiscal policy in times of national crisis -- Great Depression and World War. View More Rare Footage: FDR Addresses NIH,1940 Roosevelt addressed crowds at National Institute of Health, October 31, 1940. His speech voiced strong support for public health and medical research. The footage is now available on YouTube and via the NLM's blog. View More Four Presidential Inaugurations Franklin D. Roosevelt was the only American President elected and inaugurated four times. Here is a gallery of historical inauguration materials housed at the FDR Presidential Library & Museum. View More Around the World with the Roosevelt Explore Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt's lifetime of travels around the world through the collections of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum. View More FDR in Color Leon A. Perskie and the Story of the President's 1944 Campaign Portrait View More FDR and Polio Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first U.S. president to serve with a significant physical disability. Many believe that the personal struggle with pain and paralysis from polio helped shape FDR, both as a man and as a president. View More FDR's Naval Manuscripts FDR was a world-class collector famous for his stamps, ship models, naval art and books. But in the archives of the FDR Presidential Library and Museum there is a remarkable collection that FDR spent a lifetime acquiring. FDR called it his “Naval Manuscript Collection” but that does not do it justice. It is one of the largest private archives of rare documents on U.S. maritime history and the adventures and voyages of its greatest heroes. View More FDR on Federal Government Employee Unions "By preventing practices which tend to destroy the independence of labor, it seeks, for every worker with its scope, that freedom of choice and action which is justly his." --Statement Upon Signing the National Labor Relations Act, July 5, 1935. View More Roosevelt Family Genealogy Detailed genealogical charting of family lineage for both Franklin Delano and Anna Eleanor Roosevelt. View More FDR Timeline Franklin D. Roosevelt "Day by Day" and the "Presidential Timeline of the Twentieth Century" View More Facts & Figures: FDR Learn more about FDR. Where did he attend school? When did he first run for public office? Who were his Vice Presidents and Cabinet officers, and did he have a favorite tree? View More Facts & Figures: Presidency How many times was FDR elected President of the United States? Who were FDR's Vice Presidents and Cabinet officers? Did women play a large role in the Roosevelt Administration? View More Facts & Figures: Roosevelt Partnership & Family How were Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt related? When and where did they first meet? How many children did they have and what were their children's names? View More FDR Library Mission Statement The Library's mission is to foster research and education on the life and times of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, and their continuing impact on contemporary life. Our work is carried out by four major areas: Archives, Museum, Education and Public Programs. Address 4079 Albany Post Road Hyde Park, NY 12538 1 (800) FDR-VISIT or 1 (845) 486-7770 Directions Hours Admissions Research the Roosevelts Visit News & Events Historic Collections Educators About Us Support Sign Up Privacy Accessibility Franklin D. Roosevelt Library & Museum 2016

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The 32nd President of the United States

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The biography for President Roosevelt and past presidents is courtesy of the White House Historical Association.

Assuming the Presidency at the depth of the Great Depression, Franklin D. Roosevelt helped the American people regain faith in themselves. He brought hope as he promised prompt, vigorous action, and asserted in his Inaugural Address, “the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”

Born in 1882 at Hyde Park, New York–now a national historic site–he attended Harvard University and Columbia Law School. On St. Patrick’s Day, 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt.

Following the example of his fifth cousin, President Theodore Roosevelt, whom he greatly admired, Franklin D. Roosevelt entered public service through politics, but as a Democrat. He won election to the New York Senate in 1910. President Wilson appointed him Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and he was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in 1920.

In the summer of 1921, when he was 39, disaster hit-he was stricken with poliomyelitis. Demonstrating indomitable courage, he fought to regain the use of his legs, particularly through swimming. At the 1924 Democratic Convention he dramatically appeared on crutches to nominate Alfred E. Smith as “the Happy Warrior.” In 1928 Roosevelt became Governor of New York.

He was elected President in November 1932, to the first of four terms. By March there were 13,000,000 unemployed, and almost every bank was closed. In his first “hundred days,” he proposed, and Congress enacted, a sweeping program to bring recovery to business and agriculture, relief to the unemployed and to those in danger of losing farms and homes, and reform, especially through the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority.

By 1935 the Nation had achieved some measure of recovery, but businessmen and bankers were turning more and more against Roosevelt’s New Deal program. They feared his experiments, were appalled because he had taken the Nation off the gold standard and allowed deficits in the budget, and disliked the concessions to labor. Roosevelt responded with a new program of reform: Social Security, heavier taxes on the wealthy, new controls over banks and public utilities, and an enormous work relief program for the unemployed.

In 1936 he was re-elected by a top-heavy margin. Feeling he was armed with a popular mandate, he sought legislation to enlarge the Supreme Court, which had been invalidating key New Deal measures. Roosevelt lost the Supreme Court battle, but a revolution in constitutional law took place. Thereafter the Government could legally regulate the economy.

Roosevelt had pledged the United States to the “good neighbor” policy, transforming the Monroe Doctrine from a unilateral American manifesto into arrangements for mutual action against aggressors. He also sought through neutrality legislation to keep the United States out of the war in Europe, yet at the same time to strengthen nations threatened or attacked. When France fell and England came under siege in 1940, he began to send Great Britain all possible aid short of actual military involvement.

When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Roosevelt directed organization of the Nation’s manpower and resources for global war.

Feeling that the future peace of the world would depend upon relations between the United States and Russia, he devoted much thought to the planning of a United Nations, in which, he hoped, international difficulties could be settled.

As the war drew to a close, Roosevelt’s health deteriorated, and on April 12, 1945, while at Warm Springs, Georgia, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage.

For more information about President Roosevelt, please visit Franklin D. Roosevelt Library and Museum

Learn more about Franklin D. Roosevelt’s spouse, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt.

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差异表达分析之FDR | Public Library of Bioinformatics

分析之FDR | Public Library of Bioinformatics Public Library of Bioinformatics 首页分类文章BioinformaticsMachine LearningTranscriptomicsGenomicsSingle CellEpigeneticsStatisticsScriptEvolutionGlossaryncRNAAdvancePopular Science在线文档ggplot2画图教程鸟哥的Linux私房菜Perl教程机器学习关于我们 欢迎光临! 登录 站内百度谷歌必应搜狗360 热门搜索相关samTE数据图首页Transcriptomics差异表达分析之FDR差异表达分析之FDR来源:百迈客基因评论26,332本文来自百迈客基因微信公众号(BMK_product)随着测序成本的不断降低,转录组测序分析已逐渐成为一种很常用的分析手段。但对于转录组分析当中的一些概念,很多人还不是很清楚。今天,小编就来谈谈在转录组分析中,经常会遇到的一个概念FDR,那什么是FDR?为什么要用FDR呢?一起来学习吧!什么是FDRFDR (false discovery rate),中文一般译作错误发现率。在转录组分析中,主要用在差异表达基因的分析中,控制最终分析结果中,假阳性结果的比例。为什么要用FDR在转录组分析中,如何确定某个转录本在不同的样品中表达量是否有差异是分析的核心内容之一。一般来说,我们认为,不同样品中,表达量差异在两倍以上的转录本,是具有表达差异的转录本。为了判断两个样品之间的表达量差异究竟是由于各种误差导致的还是本质差异,我们需要根据所有基因在这两个样本中的表达量数据进行假设检验。常用的假设检验方法有t-检验、卡方检验等。很多刚接触转录组分析的人可能会有这样一个疑问,一个转录本是不是差异表达,做完假设检验看P-value不就可以了么?为什么会有FDR这样一个新的概念出现?这是因为转录组分析并不是针对一个或几个转录本进行分析,转录组分析的是一个样品中所转录表达的所有转录本。所以,一个样品当中有多少转录本,就需要对多少转录本进行假设检验。这会导致一个很严重的问题,在单次假设检验中较低的假阳性比例会累积到一个非常惊人的程度。举个不太严谨的例子。假设现在有这样一个项目:● 包含两个样品,共得到10000条转录本的表达量数据,● 其中有100条转录本的表达量在两个样品中是有差异的。● 针对单个基因的差异表达分析有1%的假阳性。由于存在1%假阳性的结果,在我们分析完这10000个基因后,我们会得到100个假阳性导致的错误结果,加上100条真实存在的结果,共计200个结果。在这个例子中,一次分析得到的200个差异表达基因中,有50%都是假阳性导致的错误结果,这显然是不可接受的。为了解决这个问题,FDR这个概念被引入,以控制最终得到的分析结果中假阳性的比例。如何计算FDRFDR的计算是根据假设检验的P-value进行校正而得到的。一般来说,FDR的计算采用Benjamini-Hochberg方法(简称BH法),计算方法如下:1. 将所有P-value升序排列.P-value记为P,P-value的序号记为i,P-value的总数记为m2. FDR(i)=P(i)*m/i3. 根据i的取值从大到小,依次执行FDR(i)=min{FDR(i),FDR(i+1)}注:实际上,BH法的原始算法是找到一个最大的i,满足P≤i/m*FDR阈值,此时,所有小于i的数据就都可以认为是显著的。在实践中,为了能够在比较方便的用不同的FDR阈值对数据进行分析,采用了步骤3里的方法。这个方法可以保证,不论FDR阈值选择多少,都可以直接根据FDR的数值来直接找到所有显著的数据。下面我们以一个包含10个数据的例子来看一下FDR计算的过程在这个例子中,第一列是原始的P-value,第二列是排序后的序号,第三列是根据P-value校正得到的初始FDR,第四列是最终用于筛选数据的FDR数值。如果我们设定FDR<0.05,那么绿色高亮的两个数据就是最终分析认为显著的数据。FDR的阈值选择在转录组分析中是非常重要的一个环节,常用的阈值包括0.01、0.05、0.1等。实践中也可以根据实际的需要来灵活选择。例如,在做真菌或者原核生物的转录组分析时,由于这些物种转录本数量较少,假阳性累积的程度较低,所以可以适当将FDR阈值设置的较高一些,这样可以获得较多的差异表达结果,有利于后续的分析。 TranscriptomicsFDR校正FDR差异表达转录组入门(7):差异表达分析差异表达基因时的Log2FC和FDR值的含义?多重检验中的FDR错误控制方法与p-value的校正假设检验p-value,FDR,q-value 上一篇基因注释工具-Metascape使用教程下一篇 DESeq2差异基因分析和批次效应移除 发表评论 匿名网友 昵称 邮箱 网址 Address 取消 Δ 赞助链接 相关文章 转录组入门(7):差异表达分析 02/25 38,654 差异表达基因时的Log2FC和FDR值的含义? 02/13 75,607 多重检验中的FDR错误控制方法与p-value的校正 01/27 2,741 假设检验p-value,FDR,q-value 01/27 3,571 RNA-Seq分析新工具 03/20 20,362 SPSS卡方检验p小于0.05之后的Bonferroni校正和Holm–Bonferroni校正 03/15 1,262随机文章MTD(mammalian transcriptomic database):哺乳动物动态转录本数据库GSEA使用介绍利用tophat和Cufflinks做转录组差异表达分析的步骤详解用DESeq2包来对RNA-seq数据进行差异分析RNA-seq流程对基因和转录本的表达量的计算RNA测序研究现状与发展Copyright © 2011-2024 Public Library of Bioinformatics (PLoB). All Rights Reserved. Sitemap

Franklin D. Roosevelt - Vice Presidents, Facts & Quotes

klin D. Roosevelt - Vice Presidents, Facts & QuotesSearchWomen’s HistoryHistory & CultureMusiciansMovies & TVAthletesArtistsPower & PoliticsBusinessScholars & EducatorsScientistsActivistsNotorious FiguresBIO BuysNewsletterPrivacy NoticeTerms Of UseSkip to ContentWomen’s HistoryMusiciansMovies & TVAthletesNewsletterFamous Political FiguresU.S. PresidentsFranklin D. RooseveltFranklin D. RooseveltFranklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal led the nation through the Great Depression. Elected to four terms, his presidency helped ensure victory in World War II.Updated: Mar 12, 2020Photo: Universal History Archive/Getty Images(1882-1945)Who Was Franklin D. Roosevelt?Franklin Delano Roosevelt was the 32nd American president. FDR, as he was often called, led the United States through the Great Depression and World War II, and greatly expanding the powers of the federal government through a series of programs and reforms known as the New Deal. Stricken with polio in 1921, Roosevelt spent much of his adult life in a wheelchair. A whole generation of Americans grew up knowing no other president, as FDR served an unprecedented four terms in office. Roosevelt’s social programs reinvented the role of government in Americans' lives, while his presidency during World War II established the United States' leadership on the world stage. Early Life and EducationRoosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in Hyde Park, New York. He was born into a wealthy family as the only child of James Roosevelt and Sara Ann Delano Roosevelt, and a distant cousin of President Theodore Roosevelt. The Roosevelts had been prominent for several generations, having made their fortune in real estate and trade, and lived at Springwood, their estate in the Hudson River Valley of New York State.While growing up, Roosevelt was surrounded by privilege and a sense of self-importance. He was educated by tutors and governesses until age 14, and the entire household revolved around him, with his mother being the dominant figure in his life even into adulthood. His upbringing was very unlike the common people whom he would later champion.In 1896, Roosevelt attended Groton School for boys, a prestigious Episcopal preparatory school in Massachusetts. The experience was a difficult one for him, as he did not fit in with the other students. Groton men excelled in athletics and Roosevelt did not. He strived to please the adults and took to heart the teachings of Groton's headmaster, Endicott Peabody, who urged students to help the less fortunate through public service.After graduating from Groton in 1900, Roosevelt entered Harvard University, determined to make something of himself. Though only a "C" student, he was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity, editor of the Harvard Crimson newspaper and received his degree in only three years. However, the general consensus by his contemporaries was that he was underwhelming and average.Roosevelt went on to study law at Columbia University Law School and passed the bar exam in 1907, though he didn't receive a degree. For the next three years, he practiced corporate law in New York, living the typical upper-class life. But Roosevelt found law practice boring and restrictive. He set his sights on greater accomplishments.Marriage to Eleanor RooseveltRoosevelt married Eleanor Roosevelt, his fifth cousin and the niece of Theodore Roosevelt, on March 17, 1905. The couple became engaged during Roosevelt’s last year at Harvard.ChildrenFranklin and Eleanor went on to have six children: Anna, James, Franklin (who died as an infant), Elliott, Franklin Jr. and John. Except for John, who chose a career as a businessman, all of the Roosevelts' children had careers in politics and public service.New York State SenateIn 1910, at age 28, Roosevelt was invited to run for the New York state senate. He ran as a Democrat in a district that had voted Republican for the past 32 years. Through hard campaigning and the help of his name, he won the seat in a Democratic landslide.As a state senator, Roosevelt opposed elements of the Democratic political machine in New York. This won him the ire of party leaders but gained him national notoriety and valuable experience in political tactics and intrigue. During this time, he formed an alliance with Louis Howe, who would shape his political career for the next 25 years. Roosevelt was re-elected to the state senate in 1912 and served as chair of the agricultural committee, passing farm and labor bills and social welfare programs.During the 1912 National Democratic Convention, Roosevelt supported presidential candidate Woodrow Wilson and was rewarded with an appointment as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, the same job Theodore Roosevelt had used to catapult himself to the presidency. Roosevelt was an energetic and efficient administrator. He specialized in business operations, working with Congress to get budgets approved and systems modernized, and he founded the U.S. Naval Reserve. But he was restless in the position as "second chair" to his boss, Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, who was less enthusiastic about supporting a large and efficient naval force.National PoliticsIn 1914, Roosevelt decided to run for the U.S. Senate seat for New York. The proposition was doomed from the start, as he lacked White House support. President Wilson needed the Democratic political machine to get his social reforms passed and ensure his re-election. He could not support Roosevelt, who had made too many political enemies among New York Democrats. Roosevelt was soundly defeated in the primary election and learned a valuable lesson that national stature could not defeat a well-organized local political organization.Still, Roosevelt took to Washington politics and found his career thriving as he developed more personal relationships. At the 1920 Democratic Convention, he accepted the nomination for vice president, as James M. Cox's running mate. The pair was soundly defeated by Republican Warren G. Harding in the general election, but the experience gave Roosevelt national exposure.Roosevelt repaired his relationship with New York's Democratic political machine. He appeared at the 1924 and 1928 Democratic National Conventions to nominate New York governor Al Smith for president, which increased his national exposure.DOWNLOAD BIOGRAPHY'S FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT FACT CARDAffair with Lucy MercerIn 1914, Roosevelt developed a relationship with Lucy Mercer, his wife’s social secretary, which evolved into a love affair. When Eleanor discovered the affair, she gave Franklin an ultimatum in 1918 to stop seeing Lucy or she would file for divorce. Roosevelt agreed to stop seeing Mercer romantically, but years later began secretly see Mercer again. She was, in fact, with him at the time of his death. Polio and ParalysisIn 1921, at the age of 39, Roosevelt was diagnosed with polio while vacationing at Campobello Island, New Brunswick, Canada. At first, refusing to accept that he was permanently paralyzed, Roosevelt tried numerous therapies and even bought the Warm Springs resort in Georgia seeking a cure. Despite his efforts, he never regained the use of his legs. He later established a foundation at Warm Springs to help others and instituted the March of Dimes program that eventually funded an effective polio vaccine. Roosevelt's "Little White House" at Warm Springs is now a Georgia State Park and a National Historic Landmark.For a time, Roosevelt was resigned to being a victim of polio, believing his political career to be over. But his wife Eleanor and political confidante Louis Howe encouraged him to continue on. Over the next several years, Roosevelt worked to improve his physical and political image. He taught himself to walk short distances in his braces. And he was careful not to be seen in public using his wheelchair.New York GovernorIn 1928, outgoing New York governor Al Smith urged Roosevelt to run for his position. Roosevelt was narrowly elected, and the victory gave him confidence that his political star was rising. As governor, FDR believed in progressive government and instituted a number of new social programs.Presidential ElectionsFollowing the stock market crash of 1929, Republicans were being blamed for the Great Depression. Sensing opportunity, Roosevelt began his run for the presidency by calling for government intervention in the economy to provide relief, recovery and reform. His upbeat, positive approach and personal charm helped him defeat Republican incumbent Herbert Hoover in November 1932. When FDR ran for his second term in 1936, he was re-elected to office on November 3, 1936, in a landslide against Alfred M. “Alf” Landon, the governor of Kansas.Early in 1940, Roosevelt had not publicly announced that he would run for an unprecedented third term as president. But privately, in the middle of World War II, with Germany's victories in Europe and Japan's growing dominance in Asia, FDR felt that only he had the experience and skills to lead America in such trying times. At the Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Roosevelt swept aside all challengers and received the nomination. In November 1940, he won the presidential election against Republican Wendell Willkie.As the end of FDR’s third term as president neared, the U.S. was deeply involved in war, and there was no question that he would run for a fourth term. Roosevelt selected Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman as his running mate, and together they defeated Republican candidate Thomas E. Dewey in the presidential election of 1944, carrying 36 of the 48 states.Fireside ChatsOn March 12, 1933, just eight days after first taking office, Roosevelt initiated his first of more than 30 fireside chats. Broadcast live on the radio from the White House, the earnest and accessible speeches were a powerful tactic to rally American support around FDR’s New Deal and World War II policies.The New DealWithin his first 100 days after taking office in March of 1933, Roosevelt called for a "New Deal" for Americans, proposing sweeping economic reforms to address the Great Depression. The greatest crisis in American history since the Civil War, 13 million Americans were unemployed and hundreds of banks were closed. Roosevelt ordered the temporary closure on all banks to halt the run on deposits. He formed a "Brain Trust" of economic advisers who designed the "alphabet agencies" such as the AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Administration), to support farm prices by reducing agricultural production through subsidies; the CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps), to employ young unmarried men to work refurbishing public lands and national parks; and the NRA (National Recovery Administration), which regulated wages and prices. Other agencies insured bank deposits, regulated the stock market, subsidized mortgages and provided relief to the unemployed.By 1936 the U.S. economy showed signs of improvement: Gross national product was up 34 percent, and unemployment had dropped from 25 percent to 14 percent. But FDR faced criticism for increased government spending, unbalanced budgets and what some perceived as a move toward socialism. During the mid-1930s, several New Deal acts were declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. Roosevelt retaliated by proposing to "pack" the court with justices more favorable to his reforms. Many in Congress, including some Democrats, rejected the idea. By 1938, negative publicity, a continuing sluggish economy and Republican victories in midterm elections virtually ended Roosevelt's ability to pass more reform legislation.Foreign PolicyIn 1933, FDR stepped away from the unilateral principle of the Monroe Doctrine and established the Good Neighbor Policy with Latin America. Since the end of World War I, America had held an isolationist policy in foreign affairs, and by the early 1930s, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts to prevent the United States from becoming entangled in foreign conflicts. However, as military conflicts emerged in Asia and Europe, Roosevelt sought to assist China in its war with Japan and declared that France and Great Britain were America's "first line of defense" against Nazi Germany. World War IIIn 1940, Roosevelt began a series of measures to help defend France and Britain from Nazi aggression in World War II, including the Lend-Lease agreement, which Congress passed as the Lend-Lease Act in 1941.During early 1941, with war raging in Europe, FDR pushed to have the United States' factories become an "arsenal of democracy" for the Allies—France, Britain and Russia. As Americans learned more about the war's atrocities, isolationist sentiment diminished. Roosevelt took advantage, standing firm against the Axis Powers of Germany, Italy and Japan. Bipartisan support in Congress expanded the Army and Navy and increased the flow of supplies to the Allies. However, any hopes of keeping the United States out of war ended with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Japanese InternmentWithin a few months after declaring war, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, ordering all persons of Japanese descent to leave the West Coast. As a result, 120,000 people, many American citizens, were sent to internment camps located inland. Oddly, no such order applied to Hawaii, where one-third of the population was of Japanese descent, nor to Americans of Italian or German ancestry living in the United States. Nearly all Japanese Americans along the West Coast were forced to quit their jobs and sell their property and businesses at a tremendous loss. Their entire social order was turned upside down as families were given just days to leave their homes and neighborhoods and be transported to the internment camps. Commander in ChiefDuring World War II, Roosevelt was a commander in chief who worked with and sometimes around his military advisers. He helped develop a strategy for defeating Germany in Europe through a series of invasions, first in North Africa in November 1942, then Sicily and Italy in 1943, followed by the D-Day invasion of Europe in 1944. At the same time, Allied forces rolled back Japan in Asia and the eastern Pacific. During this time, Roosevelt promoted the formation of the United Nations.In February, 1945, Roosevelt attended the Yalta Conference with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin to discuss post-war reorganization. He then returned to the United States and the sanctuary of Warm Springs, Georgia. DeathOn the afternoon of April 12, 1945, Roosevelt suffered a massive cerebral hemorrhage and died. The stress of World War II had taken its toll on his health, and in March 1944, hospital tests indicated he had atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease and congestive heart failure. By Roosevelt’s side at his death were two cousins, Laura Delano and Margaret Suckley, and his former mistress Lucy Mercer Rutherford (by then a widow), with whom he had maintained his relationship.Within hours of Roosevelt's passing, Vice President Harry S. Truman was summoned to the White House where he took the oath of office. FDR's sudden death shook the American public to its core. Though many had noticed that he looked exhausted in photographs and newsreels, no one seemed prepared for his passing. LegacyIn the annals of American history, Roosevelt is regarded as one of the greatest presidents ever to lead the nation: His name is routinely mentioned alongside those of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln.FDR's leadership and courage during the worst years of the Great Depression and World War II are remembered as his lasting achievements. As one biographer noted, "He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees."Watch "FDR: The War Years" on HISTORY VaultQUICK FACTSName: Franklin D. RooseveltBirth Year: 1882Birth date: January 30, 1882Birth State: New YorkBirth City: Hyde ParkBirth Country: United StatesGender: MaleBest Known For: Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal led the nation through the Great Depression. Elected to four terms, his presidency helped ensure victory in World War II.IndustriesU.S. PoliticsWorld PoliticsAstrological Sign: AquariusSchoolsHarvard UniversityColumbia University Law SchoolGroton Preparatory SchoolInteresting FactsFranklin D. Roosevelt was the only U.S. president to be elected four times.FDR was an unimpressive 'C' student at Harvard.FDR and his wife Eleanor were fifth cousins.Death Year: 1945Death date: April 12, 1945Death State: GeorgiaDeath City: Warm SpringsDeath Country: United StatesFact CheckWe strive for accuracy and fairness.If you see something that doesn't look right,contact us!CITATION INFORMATIONArticle Title: Franklin D. Roosevelt BiographyAuthor: Biography.com EditorsWebsite Name: The Biography.com websiteUrl: https://www.biography.com/political-figures/franklin-d-rooseveltAccess Date: Publisher: A&E; Television NetworksLast Updated: March 12, 2020Original Published Date: April 3, 2014QUOTESThere is nothing I love as much as a good fight.This great nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and will prosper. So, first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.Happiness lies not in the mere possession of money; it lies in the joy of achievement, in the thrill of creative effort.These dark days will be worth all they cost us if they teach us that our true destiny is not to be ministered unto but to minister to ourselves and to our fellow men.We know now that government by organized money is just as dangerous as government by organized mob.The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much; it is whether we provide enough for those who have too little.Freedom to learn is the first necessity of guaranteeing that man himself shall be self-reliant enough to be free.Wealth in the modern world does not come merely from individual effort; it results from a combination of individual effort and of the manifold uses to which the community puts that effort.There is a mysterious cycle in human events. To some generations much is given. Of other generations much is expected. This generation of Americans has a rendezvous with destiny.War is a contagion, whether it be declared or undeclared. It can engulf states and peoples remote from the original scene of hostilities.Advertisement - Continue Reading BelowU.S. PresidentsThese Are the Major 2024 Presidential CandidatesOppenheimer and Truman Met Once. It Went Badly.Who Killed JFK? You Won’t Believe Us AnywayJohn F. KennedyAdvertisement - Continue Reading BelowJimmy CarterInside Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter’s 77-Year LoveAbraham LincolnWho Is Walt Nauta, the Man Indicted with Trump?Hunter Biden and Other Presidential Problem KidsControversial Judge Aileen Cannon Not Out Just YetBarack Obama10 Celebrities the Same Age as President Joe BidenAdvertisement - Continue Reading BelowAbout Biography.comNewsletterContact UsOther Hearst SubscriptionsA Part of Hearst Digital MediaWe may earn commission from links on this page, but we only recommend products we back.©2024 Hearst Magazine Media, Inc. Site contains certain content that is owned A&E Television Networks, LLC. All Rights Reserved. Biography and associated logos are trademarks of A+E Networks®protected in the US and other countries around the globe.Privacy NoticeTerms of UseCA Notice at CollectionDAA Industry Opt OutYour CA Privacy Rights/Shine the LightCookies Choi

FDR Biography - FDR Presidential Library & Museum

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FDR Biography

Web Content Display Web Content Display Web Content Display Web Content Display The Early Years Franklin D. Roosevelt was born in Hyde Park, New York on January 30, 1882. He was the son of James Roosevelt and Sara Delano Roosevelt. His parents and private tutors provided him with almost all his formative education. He attended Groton (1896-1900), a prestigious preparatory school in Massachusetts, and received a BA degree in history from Harvard in only three years (1900-03). Roosevelt next studied law at New York's Columbia University. When he passed the bar examination in 1907, he left school without taking a degree. For the next three years he practiced law with a prominent New York City law firm. He entered politics in 1910 and was elected to the New York State Senate as a Democrat from his traditionally Republican home district. In the meantime, in 1905, he had married a distant cousin, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, who was the niece of President Theodore Roosevelt. The couple had six children, five of whom survived infancy: Anna (1906), James (1907), Elliott (1910), Franklin, Jr. (1914) and John (1916). Roosevelt was reelected to the State Senate in 1912, and supported Woodrow Wilson's candidacy at the Democratic National Convention. As a reward for his support, Wilson appointed him Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1913, a position he held until 1920. He was an energetic and efficient administrator, specializing in the business side of naval administration. This experience prepared him for his future role as Commander-in-Chief during World War II. Roosevelt's popularity and success in naval affairs resulted in his being nominated for vice-president by the Democratic Party in 1920 on a ticket headed by James M. Cox of Ohio. However, popular sentiment against Wilson's plan for US participation in the League of Nations propelled Republican Warren Harding into the presidency, and Roosevelt returned to private life. While vacationing at Campobello Island, New Brunswick in the summer of 1921, Roosevelt contracted poliomyelitis (infantile paralysis). Despite courageous efforts to overcome his crippling illness, he never regained the use of his legs. In time, he established a foundation at Warm Springs, Georgia to help other polio victims, and inspired, as well as directed, the March of Dimes program that eventually funded an effective vaccine. With the encouragement and help of his wife, Eleanor, and political confidant, Louis Howe, Roosevelt resumed his political career. In 1924 he nominated Governor Alfred E. Smith of New York for president at the Democratic National Convention, but Smith lost the nomination to John W. Davis. In 1928 Smith became the Democratic candidate for president and arranged for Roosevelt's nomination to succeed him as governor of New York. Smith lost the election to Herbert Hoover; but Roosevelt was elected governor. Following his reelection as governor in 1930, Roosevelt began to campaign for the presidency. While the economic depression damaged Hoover and the Republicans, Roosevelt's bold efforts to combat it in New York enhanced his reputation. In Chicago in 1932, Roosevelt won the nomination as the Democratic Party candidate for president. He broke with tradition and flew to Chicago to accept the nomination in person. He then campaigned energetically calling for government intervention in the economy to provide relief, recovery, and reform. His activist approach and personal charm helped to defeat Hoover in November 1932 by seven million votes. The Great Depression  The Depression worsened in the months preceding Roosevelt's inauguration, March 4, 1933. Factory closings, farm foreclosures, and bank failures increased, while unemployment soared. Roosevelt faced the greatest crisis in American history since the Civil War. He undertook immediate actions to initiate his New Deal programs. To halt depositor panics, he closed the banks temporarily. Then he worked with a special session of Congress during the first "100 days" to pass recovery legislation which set up alphabet agencies such as the AAA (Agricultural Adjustment Administration) to support farm prices and the CCC (Civilian Conservation Corps) to employ young men. Other agencies assisted business and labor, insured bank deposits, regulated the stock market, subsidized home and farm mortgage payments, and aided the unemployed. These measures revived confidence in the economy. Banks reopened and direct relief saved millions from starvation. But the New Deal measures also involved government directly in areas of social and economic life as never before and resulted in greatly increased spending and unbalanced budgets which led to criticisms of Roosevelt's programs. However, the nation-at-large supported Roosevelt, and elected additional Democrats to state legislatures and governorships in the mid-term elections. Another flurry of New Deal legislation followed in 1935 including the establishment of the Works Projects Administration (WPA) which provided jobs not only for laborers but also artists, writers, musicians, and authors, and the Social Security act which provided unemployment compensation and a program of old-age and survivors' benefits. Roosevelt easily defeated Alfred M. Landon in 1936 and went on to defeat by lesser margins, Wendell Willkie in 1940 and Thomas E. Dewey in 1944. He thus became the only American president to serve more than two terms. After his overwhelming victory in 1936, Roosevelt took on the critics of the New Deal, namely, the Supreme Court, which had declared various legislation unconstitutional, and members of his own party. In 1937 he proposed to add new justices to the Supreme Court, but critics said he was "packing" the Court and undermining the separation of powers. His proposal was defeated, but the Court began to decide in favor of New Deal legislation. During the 1938 election he campaigned against many Democratic opponents, but this backfired when most were reelected to Congress. These setbacks, coupled with the recession that occurred midway through his second term, represented the low-point in Roosevelt's presidential career. World War II By 1939, with the outbreak of war in Europe, Roosevelt was concentrating increasingly on foreign affairs. New Deal reform legislation diminished, and the ills of the Depression would not fully abate until the nation mobilized for war. When Hitler attacked Poland in September 1939, Roosevelt stated that, although the nation was neutral, he did not expect America to remain inactive in the face of Nazi aggression. Accordingly, he tried to make American aid available to Britain, France, and China and to obtain an amendment of the Neutrality Acts which rendered such assistance difficult. He also took measures to build up the armed forces in the face of isolationist opposition. With the fall of France in 1940, the American mood and Roosevelt's policy changed dramatically. Congress enacted a draft for military service and Roosevelt signed a "lend-lease" bill in March 1941 to enable the nation to furnish aid to nations at war with Germany and Italy. America, though a neutral in the war and still at peace, was becoming the "arsenal of democracy", as its factories began producing as they had in the years before the Depression. The Japanese surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941, followed four days later by Germany's and Italy's declarations of war against the United States, brought the nation irrevocably into the war. Roosevelt exercised his powers as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, a role he actively carried out. He worked with and through his military advisers, overriding them when necessary, and took an active role in choosing the principal field commanders and in making decisions regarding wartime strategy. He moved to create a "grand alliance" against the Axis powers through "The Declaration of the United Nations," January 1, 1942, in which all nations fighting the Axis agreed not to make a separate peace and pledged themselves to a peacekeeping organization (now the United Nations) upon victory. He gave priority to the western European front and had General George Marshall, Chief of Staff, plan a holding operation in the Pacific and organize an expeditionary force for an invasion of Europe. The United States and its allies invaded North Africa in November 1942 and Sicily and Italy in 1943. The D-Day landings on the Normandy beaches in France, June 6, 1944, were followed by the allied invasion of Germany six months later. By April 1945 victory in Europe was certain. The unending stress and strain of the war literally wore Roosevelt out. By early 1944 a full medical examination disclosed serious heart and circulatory problems; and although his physicians placed him on a strict regime of diet and medication, the pressures of war and domestic politics weighed heavily on him. During a vacation at Warm Springs, Georgia, on April 12, 1945, he suffered a massive stroke and died two and one-half hours later without regaining consciousness. He was 63 years old. His death came on the eve of complete military victory in Europe and within months of victory over Japan in the Pacific. President Roosevelt was buried in the Rose Garden of his estate at Hyde Park, New York.                 Web Content Display Web Content Display Franklin D. Roosevelt Fast Facts:  BORN: January 30, 1882 in Hyde Park, New York PARENTS: Sara Delano and, James Roosevelt His father died when he was 18. His mother died when he was 59. BROTHER: A half brother named James Roosevelt Roosevelt, (1854-1927) EDUCATION: Tutored at home until 1896 Groton School, Groton, Massachusetts (1896-1900) Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts (1900-1903) Received a B.A. in History Columbia Law School, New York City (1903-1905) Course work towards a degree in law, but no degree earned MARRIED: Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (fifth cousin once removed), March 17, 1905 in New York City. CHILDREN: Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (May 3, 1906 - December 1, 1975) James Roosevelt (December 23, 1907 - August 13, 1990) Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr. (March 18, 1909 - November 8, 1909) Elliott Roosevelt (September 23, 1910 - October 27, 1990) Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr. (August 17, 1914 - August 17, 1988) ACTIVITIES: New York State Senator Assistant Secretary of the Navy Nominated for Vice President on ticket with James Cox Founded the Warm Springs Georgia Foundation Two term Governor of the State of New York Four term President of the United States, guiding the nation through the Great Depression and World War II PHYSICAL APPEARANCE: Brown hair, 6 feet 2 inches tall, blue -grey eyes DIED: April 12, 1945 in Warm Springs Georgia-cause of death listed cerebral hemorrhage. Web Content Display Web Content Display Chronology of Franklin D. Roosevelt's Career The Early Years 1882 Born in Hyde Park, NY on January 30 1896-1900 FDR attends Groton, a private preparatory school in Massachusetts 1900-1903 FDR attends Harvard, receiving a BA in history 1905 Married Eleanor Roosevelt, a fifth cousin once removed, in NYC on March 17 Enters Columbia Law School 1907 FDR passes the bar examination and leaves Columbia without completing a degree 1910 FDR elected to the New York State Senate 1912 FDR was re-elected to the New York State Senate 1913 FDR was appointed Assistant Secretary of the Navy by President Woodrow Wilson 1920 Ran as Vice-President on the Democratic ticket along with James Cox of Ohio. Lost the election to Warren Harding and returned to private life. 1921 FDR is stricken with polio while vacationing at Campobello Island, New Brunswick. 1924 FDR returns to politics by nominating Governor Alfred E. Smith of New York for president at the Democratic National Convention. 1928 FDR elected governor of New York State 1930 FDR re-elected governor of New York State. Begins his campaign for the presidency. 1932 FDR is nominated as the Democratic Party candidate for president and defeats Hoover in November by seven million votes. The New Deal Presidency 1933 FDR takes the oath of office on March 4 During his first "100 Days," he is able to get a large number of Legislative Initiatives through Congress which set up the alphabet agencies such as the Agricultural Adjustment Administration & Civilian Conservation Corps aimed at bringing about economic relief recovery & reform. 1935 Additional New Deal legislation is passed including the Works Progress Administration and Social Security 1936 FDR was re-elected president to a second term 1937 FDR proposes to add justices to the Supreme Court, in an ill fated court "packing" plan World War II 1939 Germany invades Poland there by starting WWII. While the U.S. remains neutral, FDR does try to make American aid available to the Allied powers 1940 FDR is re-elected for an unprecedented third term 1941 In March, FDR signs the Lend-Lease bill to aid nations at war with Germany & Italy On December 7, Japan attacks Pearl Harbor bringing the United States into the war. The next day FDR delivers his "day of infamy" speech before Congress and asks for a formal declaration of war against Germany. 1942 FDR moves to create a "grand alliance" of Allied powers through "the Declaration of the United Nations" 1944 FDR is re-elected president for a fourth term 1945 On April 12, FDR passes away at Warm Springs, Georgia. He is buried in the Rose Garden of his estate at Hyde Park, New York.                 FDR Library Mission Statement The Library's mission is to foster research and education on the life and times of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, and their continuing impact on contemporary life. Our work is carried out by four major areas: Archives, Museum, Education and Public Programs. Address 4079 Albany Post Road Hyde Park, NY 12538 1 (800) FDR-VISIT or 1 (845) 486-7770 Directions Hours Admissions Research the Roosevelts Visit News & Events Historic Collections Educators About Us Support Sign Up Privacy Accessibility Franklin D. Roosevelt Library & Museum 2016