比特派最新版本|fertility
作者： 比特派最新版本
2024-03-09 19:49:12
FERTILITY中文(简体)翻译：剑桥词典
FERTILITY中文(简体)翻译：剑桥词典
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中文 (简体)
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英语-中文（简体）
fertility 在英语-中文（简体）词典中的翻译
fertilitynoun [ U ] uk
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/fəˈtɪl.ə.ti/ us
Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio
/fɚˈtɪl.ə.t̬i/
fertility noun [U]
(PEOPLE/ANIMALS/PLANTS)
Add to word list
Add to word list
(of animals and plants) the quality of being able to produce young or fruit
（动植物的）生殖力
a fertility symbol
生殖力的象征
declining fertility rates
下降的生育率
更多范例减少例句He runs a fertility clinic.She was prescribed fertility drugs to stimulate her ovaries.She's a leading fertility expert.She began fertility treatment at the clinic three years ago.It is thought that environmental toxins are destroying fertility.
fertility noun [U]
(LAND)
(of land) the quality of producing a large number of good quality crops
（土地的）肥力，肥沃度
the fertility of the soil
土壤的肥力
fertility noun [U]
(IMAGINATION)
literary (of the mind or imagination) the quality of producing a lot of unusual and interesting ideas
（头脑）奇思妙想的能力
(fertility在剑桥英语-中文（简体）词典的翻译 © Cambridge University Press)
fertility的例句
fertility
Depending on the geographical situation, the nature of infected hosts and the sites of infection, cysts may have different fertility rates.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
None the less, it is vital that unusual fertility patterns are highlighted, even if the causes remain unclear.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
The scheme outlined in this report shows how a quick and complete fertility investigation of the couple can be carried out in 2 months.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
It is unlikely that this heralds a decline in the total fertility of these cohorts.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
Yet, soil fertility will be the most important constraint for organic rice production.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
The decline of fertility during the war contributed to the further expansion of the percentage of employed persons.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
It is therefore important in demographic research on fertility to measure precisely the length of amenorrhoea.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
Specifically, as economic growth proceeds, individuals making economically rational fertility decisions reduce birth rates and check population growth endogenously.
来自 Cambridge English Corpus
示例中的观点不代表剑桥词典编辑、剑桥大学出版社和其许可证颁发者的观点。
C1
fertility的翻译
中文（繁体）
人／動物／植物, （動植物的）生殖力，繁殖能力, 土地…
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西班牙语
fertilidad, fertilidad [feminine]…
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葡萄牙语
fertilidade, fertilidade [feminine]…
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日语
法语
土耳其语
加泰罗尼亚语
in Dutch
阿拉伯语
捷克语
丹麦语
印尼语
泰语
越南语
波兰语
in Swedish
马来语
德语
挪威语
韩语
in Ukrainian
意大利语
肥よく, 多産, 肥沃（ひよく）…
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fertilité [feminine], fécondité [feminine], fertilité…
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verimlilik…
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fertilitat…
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vruchtbaarheid…
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خُصوبة…
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úrodnost, plodnost…
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frugtbarhed, frodighed…
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kesuburan…
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ความอุดมสมบูรณ์…
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tình trạng màu mỡ, khả năng sinh sản…
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płodność, urodzajność…
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bördighet, fruktsamhet, fertilitet…
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kesuburan…
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die Fruchtbarkeit…
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fruktbarhet [masculine], fruktbarhet…
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비옥함…
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родючість, плодючість…
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fertilità…
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fertility的发音是什么？
在英语词典中查看 fertility 的释义
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ferrule
ferry
fertile
fertile ground for something idiom
fertility
fertilization
fertilize
fertilizer
fervent
“每日一词”
flexitarian
A flexitarian way of eating consists mainly of vegetarian food but with some meat.
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内容
英语-中文（简体）
Noun
fertility (PEOPLE/ANIMALS/PLANTS)
fertility (LAND)
fertility (IMAGINATION)
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FERTILITY中文(繁體)翻譯：劍橋詞典
FERTILITY中文(繁體)翻譯：劍橋詞典
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英語-中文（繁體）
fertility 在英語-中文（繁體）詞典中的翻譯
fertilitynoun [ U ] uk
Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio
/fəˈtɪl.ə.ti/ us
Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio
/fɚˈtɪl.ə.t̬i/
fertility noun [U]
(PEOPLE/ANIMALS/PLANTS)
Add to word list
Add to word list
(of animals and plants) the quality of being able to produce young or fruit
（動植物的）生殖力，繁殖能力
a fertility symbol
生殖力的象徵
declining fertility rates
下降的生育率
更多範例减少例句He runs a fertility clinic.She was prescribed fertility drugs to stimulate her ovaries.She's a leading fertility expert.She began fertility treatment at the clinic three years ago.It is thought that environmental toxins are destroying fertility.
fertility noun [U]
(LAND)
(of land) the quality of producing a large number of good quality crops
（土地的）肥沃度
the fertility of the soil
土壤的肥沃度
fertility noun [U]
(IMAGINATION)
literary (of the mind or imagination) the quality of producing a lot of unusual and interesting ideas
（頭腦）奇思妙想的能力
(fertility在劍橋英語-中文（繁體）詞典的翻譯 © Cambridge University Press)
fertility的例句
fertility
Due recognition must also be given to changes in nuptial fertility and to apparently changing perceptions of the roles of marriage and the family.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
The small-country effect, although somewhat lower than that in the full sample, still shows fertility climbing with land area over almost the entire sample.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
He later provided a more refined definition, referring specifically to fertility without birth control according to the number of children the couple already had.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
One of the main arguments now advanced is that, on the whole, people's fertility behaviour is economically rational, even in primitive societies.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
To be realistic, households must set at least investment and fertility rates.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
It is unlikely that this heralds a decline in the total fertility of these cohorts.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
The scheme outlined in this report shows how a quick and complete fertility investigation of the couple can be carried out in 2 months.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
It provides an example of evaluating, from diagnosis to extension, on-far m soil fertility research in rainfed lowland rice.
來自 Cambridge English Corpus
示例中的觀點不代表劍橋詞典編輯、劍橋大學出版社和其許可證頒發者的觀點。
C1
fertility的翻譯
中文（簡體）
人／动物／植物, （动植物的）生殖力, 土地…
查看更多內容
西班牙語
fertilidad, fertilidad [feminine]…
查看更多內容
葡萄牙語
fertilidade, fertilidade [feminine]…
查看更多內容
更多語言
日語
法語
土耳其語
加泰羅尼亞語
in Dutch
阿拉伯語
捷克語
丹麥語
印尼語
泰語
越南語
波蘭語
in Swedish
馬來西亞語
德語
挪威語
韓語
in Ukrainian
意大利語
肥よく, 多産, 肥沃（ひよく）…
查看更多內容
fertilité [feminine], fécondité [feminine], fertilité…
查看更多內容
verimlilik…
查看更多內容
fertilitat…
查看更多內容
vruchtbaarheid…
查看更多內容
خُصوبة…
查看更多內容
úrodnost, plodnost…
查看更多內容
frugtbarhed, frodighed…
查看更多內容
kesuburan…
查看更多內容
ความอุดมสมบูรณ์…
查看更多內容
tình trạng màu mỡ, khả năng sinh sản…
查看更多內容
płodność, urodzajność…
查看更多內容
bördighet, fruktsamhet, fertilitet…
查看更多內容
kesuburan…
查看更多內容
die Fruchtbarkeit…
查看更多內容
fruktbarhet [masculine], fruktbarhet…
查看更多內容
비옥함…
查看更多內容
родючість, плодючість…
查看更多內容
fertilità…
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fertility的發音是什麼？
在英語詞典中查看 fertility 的釋義
瀏覽
ferrule
ferry
fertile
fertile ground for something idiom
fertility
fertilization
fertilize
fertilizer
fervent
「每日一詞」
flexitarian
A flexitarian way of eating consists mainly of vegetarian food but with some meat.
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Forget doing it or forget to do it? Avoiding common mistakes with verb patterns (2)
March 06, 2024
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March 04, 2024
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英語-中文（繁體）
Noun
fertility (PEOPLE/ANIMALS/PLANTS)
fertility (LAND)
fertility (IMAGINATION)
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FERTILITY | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary
FERTILITY | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary
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Meaning of fertility in English
fertilitynoun [ U ] uk
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/fəˈtɪl.ə.ti/ us
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/fɚˈtɪl.ə.t̬i/
fertility noun [U]
(PEOPLE/ANIMALS/PLANTS)
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(of animals and plants) the quality of being able to produce young or fruit: a fertility symbol declining fertility rates
More examplesFewer examplesHe runs a fertility clinic.She was prescribed fertility drugs to stimulate her ovaries.She's a leading fertility expert.She began fertility treatment at the clinic three years ago.It is thought that environmental toxins are destroying fertility.
SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases
Animal reproduction
androgen
anti-oestrogen
asexuality
asexually
barrenness
calve
fertile
impregnate
nonreproductive
oestrogen
out-reproduce
ovulate
ovulation
panmictic
panmixia
procreate
procreation
rut
spawn
sterile
See more results »
fertility noun [U]
(LAND)
(of land) the quality of producing a large number of good quality crops: the fertility of the soil
SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases
Fertile or infertile land
barren
barrenly
barrenness
bread basket
cultivable
denude
fertile
hardscrabble
hospitable
hostile
infertile
luscious
lushly
lushness
sterile
uncropped
uncultivable
uncultivated
unfertile
unfertilized
See more results »
fertility noun [U]
(IMAGINATION)
literary (of the mind or imagination) the quality of producing a lot of unusual and interesting ideas
SMART Vocabulary: related words and phrases
Imagining and conceiving
assume
beyond your wildest dreams idiom
blue-sky
conceivable
conceivably
guess
imagine
in your mind's eye idiom
inconceivably
lay the foundation(s) of/for idiom
look on/upon someone/something as something
manifest
reach
regard
retheorization
retheorize
revisualization
riot
run riot idiom
throw
See more results »
(Definition of fertility from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary & Thesaurus © Cambridge University Press)
fertility | American Dictionary
fertilitynoun [ U ] us
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/fərˈtɪl·ɪ·t̬i/
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biology the ability to produce young
(Definition of fertility from the Cambridge Academic Content Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)
Examples of fertility
fertility
The scheme outlined in this report shows how a quick and complete fertility investigation of the couple can be carried out in 2 months.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
Legumes for sustaining soil fertility in lowland rice.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
It provides an example of evaluating, from diagnosis to extension, on-far m soil fertility research in rainfed lowland rice.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
Yet, soil fertility will be the most important constraint for organic rice production.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
Due recognition must also be given to changes in nuptial fertility and to apparently changing perceptions of the roles of marriage and the family.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
Fertility could be triggered by photoperiod together with increasing temperatures.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
In general, it is clear that the women who married younger tended to have lower age-specific fertility rates.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
It is described as a manual for research in agroforestry with emphasis on the effects of trees on soil and soil fertility.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
It is unlikely that this heralds a decline in the total fertility of these cohorts.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
None the less, it is vital that unusual fertility patterns are highlighted, even if the causes remain unclear.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
The decline of fertility during the war contributed to the further expansion of the percentage of employed persons.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
Is there a connection between poverty and fertility?
From the Cambridge English Corpus
It is therefore important in demographic research on fertility to measure precisely the length of amenorrhoea.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
Farmers tend to reduce planting density as soil fertility decreases so that they obtain ears of a reasonable size.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
Depending on the geographical situation, the nature of infected hosts and the sites of infection, cysts may have different fertility rates.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
See all examples of fertility
These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.
Collocations with fertility
fertility
These are words often used in combination with fertility.Click on a collocation to see more examples of it.
declining fertilityFirst, the impact of declining fertility on children's claims to social resources as their share of the population declines.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
female fertilityTable 4 gives the data on female fertility.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
fertility awarenessPatient perspectives explored emergency appointments, young people's needs, fertility awareness and patients access to their own records.
From the Cambridge English Corpus
These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.
See all collocations with fertility
What is the pronunciation of fertility?
C1
Translations of fertility
in Chinese (Traditional)
人／動物／植物, （動植物的）生殖力，繁殖能力, 土地…
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in Chinese (Simplified)
人／动物／植物, （动植物的）生殖力, 土地…
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in Spanish
fertilidad, fertilidad [feminine]…
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in Portuguese
fertilidade, fertilidade [feminine]…
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in more languages
in Japanese
in French
in Turkish
in Catalan
in Dutch
in Arabic
in Czech
in Danish
in Indonesian
in Thai
in Vietnamese
in Polish
in Swedish
in Malay
in German
in Norwegian
in Korean
in Ukrainian
in Italian
肥よく, 多産, 肥沃（ひよく）…
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fertilité [feminine], fécondité [feminine], fertilité…
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verimlilik…
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fertilitat…
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vruchtbaarheid…
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خُصوبة…
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úrodnost, plodnost…
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frugtbarhed, frodighed…
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kesuburan…
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ความอุดมสมบูรณ์…
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tình trạng màu mỡ, khả năng sinh sản…
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płodność, urodzajność…
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bördighet, fruktsamhet, fertilitet…
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kesuburan…
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die Fruchtbarkeit…
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fruktbarhet [masculine], fruktbarhet…
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비옥함…
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родючість, плодючість…
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fertilità…
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Contents
English
Noun
fertility (PEOPLE/ANIMALS/PLANTS)
fertility (LAND)
fertility (IMAGINATION)
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Noun
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fertility是什么意思_fertility的翻译_音标_读音_用法_例句_爱词霸在线词典
ility是什么意思_fertility的翻译_音标_读音_用法_例句_爱词霸在线词典首页翻译背单词写作校对词霸下载用户反馈专栏平台登录fertility是什么意思_fertility用英语怎么说_fertility的翻译_fertility翻译成_fertility的中文意思_fertility怎么读,fertility的读音,fertility的用法,fertility的例句翻译人工翻译试试人工翻译翻译全文简明柯林斯牛津fertilityCET4/CET6英 [fəˈtɪləti]美 [fərˈtɪləti]释义n.富饶; 能生育性; 可繁殖性; 想象力丰富点击 人工翻译，了解更多 人工释义实用场景例句全部肥沃肥力丰产繁殖力the fertility of the soil/land土壤的肥沃；土地的丰饶牛津词典a god of fertility丰收之神牛津词典fertility treatment (= medical help given to a person to help them have a baby)不孕症治疗牛津词典...fertile soil.肥沃的土地柯林斯高阶英语词典...the rolling fertile countryside of East Cork.科克郡东部起伏的乡间沃土柯林斯高阶英语词典...a product of Flynn's fertile imagination...弗林丰富想象力的产物柯林斯高阶英语词典A chess player must have a fertile imagination and rich sense of fantasy.一个棋手必须有丰富的想象力，并善于奇思妙想。柯林斯高阶英语词典...a fertile breeding ground for this kind of violent racism.易于滋生这种极端种族主义的温床柯林斯高阶英语词典The operation cannot be reversed to make her fertile again.手术结果不可逆转，无法让她恢复生育能力。柯林斯高阶英语词典A green manure is a crop grown mainly to improve soil fertility.种植绿肥作物主要是为使土壤更加肥沃.《简明英汉词典》Zinc also plays a vital role in fertility.锌在生育方面也有重要的作用.期刊摘选By comparison, the fertility rate in developed countries has been stable, or falling.相比而言, 发达国家的生育率很稳定, 甚至在下降.期刊摘选The fertility of the soil, so important in other crops, is less important for grapes.土壤的肥力对于其他的农作物来说是那么重要, 却是影响葡萄树生长的次要因素.期刊摘选Fertility is indicated because a narrow waist is linked to higher oestrogen levels.细腰女人生育能力强是因为细腰与雌激素分泌旺盛有关.期刊摘选The southern polder area of China has fertility soil, variegated rivers and plentiful natural resources.我国南方圩区土壤肥沃, 水网密布,资源丰富.期刊摘选Rice symbolizes productivity and fertility 11.“生米”意味着生儿育女、多子多福.期刊摘选But men are rarely given the same advice often don't worry about fertility postponing marriage children.但男性却罕被提醒,丝毫不担心推迟结婚和生子后的生育力问题.期刊摘选The sperm count is used as an indicator of male fertility.男性生育能力可以用精子数来衡量.期刊摘选No te: The analysis result acquired in the so il ofm middle fertility.注:分 析结果为中肥力土壤基本性状.期刊摘选Symbolises: spring, renewal, fertility, jealousy, inexperience, health, growth ( vegetation ) and wealth ( money ).象征: 春天, 重建, 生育 、 嫉妒 、 懂事, 健康成长 ( 植被 ) 和财富 ( 钱 ).期刊摘选They used fertility monitors to identify ovulation and confirmed the pregnancies with testing kits.他们利用生殖监视器识别排卵期,并用测试设备确认怀孕.期刊摘选In some parts of China and Europe, they're also eaten to promote fertility.在我国一些地区和欧洲, 他们也会吃鱼以促进生育能力.期刊摘选Here was a greater fertility and greater abandonment.这里更加丰饶,更加放纵.期刊摘选In a preliminary human trial, infertile couples given vitamin E showed a significant increase in fertility.在初步人体试验, 不孕夫妇服用维生素E后能显著增加生育能力.期刊摘选How will my treatment affect fertility, pregnancy or breastfeeding?我的治疗会影响我的生育 、 怀孕或者哺乳 吗 ?期刊摘选Some studies indicate a slight increase in fertility lasting about three months after a normal HSG.一些研究表明正常子宫输卵管造影后约三个月可轻微增强生育力.期刊摘选Here , the fertility rate is below 1.5 and countries are struggling in a fertility trap.这里的出生率低于1.5,这些国家在生育泥潭里面挣扎.期刊摘选She was unable to conceive a child naturally and was offered fertility treatment.她因不能自然怀孕而接受受孕治疗.《简明英汉词典》Is this also a fertility shaft?这也是生育力之柱 吗 ?期刊摘选She is taking drugs to increase her fertility.她为了增强她的生殖能力而在服药.《简明英汉词典》收起实用场景例句真题例句全部六级高考考研No one has a good answer" as to why fertility varies among countries, says sociologist Andrew Cherl in of The Johns Hopkins University.出自-2013年12月阅读原文By some studies, the safety nets for retirees have reduced fertility rates by出自-2013年12月阅读原文And if fertility in ageing countries does not pick up?出自-2010年12月阅读原文And about 200 to 215 million women don't have access to birth control they want, so that they can't control their own fertility.2017年6月六级真题（第二套）听力 Section CBetween the ages of about 12 and 50, women produce hormones that are involved in fertility (生育能力).2016年高考英语四川卷 阅读理解 七选五 原文Moreover, some have been found to have a valuable function in building up soil fertility.出自-2010年考研翻译原文收起真题例句英英释义Noun1. the ratio of live births in an area to the population of that area; expressed per 1000 population per year2. the state of being fertile; capable of producing offspring3. the property of producing abundantly and sustaining growth;"he praised the richness of the soil"收起英英释义词根词缀词根: fer=bring/carry,表示"带来,拿来"adj.aquiferous 含水的, 蓄水的aqui水+fer带来,拿来+ous……的→带来水的different 不同的differ[v.不同]+ent表形容词→adj.不同的fertile 肥沃的,富饶的;能繁殖的fert=fer带来,拿来+ile能……的→能带来粮食→肥沃的floriferous 有花的,开花的,多花的,花盛开的flori=flor花+fer带来,拿来+ous……的→带来花→有花的indifferent 冷漠的in不+different不同的→同与不同的"事不关已" →冷漠的inferable 能推理的, 能推论的infer[v.推论,推断]+able能……的→adj.能推理的, 能推论的inferential 推论性的infer[v.推论,推断]+ent+ial……的→adj.推论性的odoriferous 有香味的,芳香的odori=odor气味+fer带来,拿来+ous……的→带来气味的referable 可归[起]因于……的, 可归入……的; 与……有关的refer[v.参考,查询;提到,引用,涉及;提交,上呈]+able能……的→能提到的,能找到原因的→可归于……sufferable 可容忍的,可忍耐的suffer[v.受苦]+able能……的→adj.可容忍的,可忍耐的transferable 可转让的transfer[n.&v.转移;转换;转让;过户;迁移;改乘]+able能……的→adj.可转让的n.aquifer 含水土层, 蓄水层aqui水+fer带来,拿来→n.含水土层, 蓄水层conference [正式]会议;讨论,商谈confer[v.商讨;授予,颁给[勋衔,学位等]]+ence表名词→n.[正式]会议;讨论,商谈conferment 给予, 商量, 授予con共同+fer带来,拿来+ment表名词→共同带来东西→给予[奖品等]conifer 针叶树coni松果+fer带来,拿来→带来松果的树→针叶树coniferous 针叶树的,松类的,结球果的conifer[n.针叶树]+ous……的→n.针叶树的,松类的,结球果的deference 敬意,尊重defer敬从+ence表名词→n.敬意,尊重deferment 推迟;延迟defer推迟+ment表名词→n.推迟;延迟difference 不同differ[v.不同]+ence表名词→n.不同ferry 摆渡;渡船;渡口fer带来,拿来+ry状态,性质→带来带去fertility 肥沃,丰饶fertile[adj.肥沃的,富饶的;能繁殖的]+ity表名词→n.肥沃,丰饶fertilizer [fertiliser]肥料fertilize[v.使受精;施肥于,使肥沃]+er表名词→n.[fertiliser]肥料offer 出价,提议,意图of一再+fer带来,拿来→一再带来→提供offering 报盘,提供的货物offer[v.提供,提议,出现 n.出价,提议,意图]+ing表名词→n.报盘,提供的货物preference [for,to]偏爱,喜爱;优惠;优先选择prefer[v.[to]更喜欢,宁愿]+ence表名词→n.[for,to]偏爱,喜爱;优惠;优先选择proffer 提议,建议pro向前+ffer=fer带来,拿来→带到前面去→贡献出来referee [足球等]裁判员refer[v.参考,查询;提到,引用,涉及;提交,上呈]+ee人→被双方提及的人→裁判reference 提及,涉及;参考,参考书目;证明书[人]refer[v.参考,查询;提到,引用,涉及;提交,上呈]+ence表名词→n.提及,涉及;参考,参考书目;证明书[人]referendum 公民投票,居民投票refer[v.参考,查询;提到,引用,涉及;提交,上呈]+endum表名词→提出[候选人]→选举n.&v.transfer 转移;转换;转让;过户;迁移;改乘trans变换,交换+fer带→转移过去→转学,转移v.confer 商讨;授予,颁给[勋衔,学位等]con共同+fer带来,拿来→共同带来观点defer 敬从de加强+fer带来,拿来→一再带来敬意differ 不同dif不同+fer带来→带来不同→不同differentiate 区分,区别;[使]不同different[adj.不同的]+iate做→v.区分,区别;[使]不同ferry 摆渡;渡运[人,车或物等]fer带来,拿来+ry状态,性质→带来带去fertilize 使受精;施肥于,使肥沃fertile[adj.肥沃的,富饶的;能繁殖的]+ize表动词→v.使受精;施肥于,使肥沃infer 推论,推断in进入+fer带来,拿来→带来[意义]→推断offer 提供,提议,出现 of一再+fer带来,拿来→一再带来→提供prefer [to]更喜欢,宁愿pre先+fer带来→预先就带来→更喜欢proffer 献出,赠送 pro向前+ffer=fer带来,拿来→带到前面去→贡献出来refer 参考,查询;提到,引用,涉及;提交,上呈re向后+fer带来,拿来→向后回过头来[看]已经带来的→参考,查询suffer 受苦suf下面+fer带→带到下面去→受苦同义词productivity反义词n.肥沃;丰饶;丰富sterility其他释义sterility行业词典动物学生育率 能育性 医学生育力：怀孕或致孕的能力 人口出生率：年出生数与育龄妇女数之比 见rate项下的birth rate 昆虫学生育力 植物学能育[性] 海洋科学肥力 生理学生育力 胚胎学受精［能］力 又称 :受精［能］力(fertilization ability ) 药学生育率 释义实用场景例句真题例句英英释义词根词缀同义词反义词行Fertility | ovulation, hormones & infertility | Britannica
Fertility | ovulation, hormones & infertility | Britannica
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fertility, ability of an individual or couple to reproduce through normal sexual activity. About 90 percent of healthy, fertile women are able to conceive within one year if they have intercourse regularly without contraception. Normal fertility requires the production of enough healthy sperm by the male and viable eggs by the female, successful passage of the sperm through open ducts from the male testes to the female fallopian tubes, penetration of a healthy egg, and implantation of the fertilized egg in the lining of the uterus (see reproductive system). A problem with any of these steps can cause infertility.
This article was most recently revised and updated by Kara Rogers.
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Trying to Conceive
What Is Fertility?
By
Rachel Gurevich, RN
Updated on October 31, 2022
Medically reviewed by
Leyla Bilali, RN
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Signs of a Fertility Problem
Causes of Infertility
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Fertility Testing and Treatment
Coping With Infertility
Fertility is the natural capacity to conceive a child. Fertility does not come easily to everyone. About 11% of couples will face infertility—the inability to conceive naturally after one year of unprotected sexual intercourse. Fertility is not only a female health issue. People of all genders can experience infertility, and everyone can take steps to improve their fertility.
Here's a look at what you can do to improve your fertility, increase the odds that you’ll conceive quickly, and reduce your risk of infertility.
Signs of a Fertility Problem
It’s common for a couple to only discover they have a fertility issue after they have tried to get pregnant unsuccessfully for a year. Many causes of infertility don’t have obvious symptoms. However, the following signs might indicate a fertility problem and warrant a call to a healthcare provider:
You are age 35 or older, and you've been trying get pregnant for six months.
You're younger than 35 and have had unprotected sexual intercourse for one year without getting pregnant.
You have had two or more successive pregnancy losses.
You have any risk factors for infertility.
The most common symptoms of a fertility problem are:
Irregular menstrual cycles
Unusually light or heavy bleeding and bad menstrual cramps
Unusually heavy periods or abnormal menstrual bleeding
Pelvic pain or pain during sexual intercourse
Sexual dysfunction (including erectile dysfunction or low libido)
12 Potential Signs of a Fertility Problem
Causes of Infertility
Some factors that may reduce your fertility are within your control. For example, smoking reduces fertility in men and women, so quitting is advised (for this and, of course, many other reasons). Other causes for reduced fertility are not within your control—for example, age-related fertility decline.
Age
Female fertility peaks from the early to mid-20s, and after age 35, it starts to rapidly decline. Male fertility also declines with age, though not as dramatically. While some men are still fertile after age 50, people with uteruses are completely infertile after menopause.
Chronic Diseases
Even if a disease is not directly related to the reproductive system, it can still impact fertility. Several chronic diseases, along with their treatments, can lead to fertility problems in people of any sex, including:
Diabetes
Hypothyroidism
Periodontal disease
Untreated celiac disease
Hormonal Imbalances or Diseases of the Reproductive System
Hormonal imbalances can reduce fertility or even cause infertility. For example, endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, and premature ovarian failure (also known as primary ovarian insufficiency) can lead to female infertility. Low testosterone can lead to male infertility.
Male infertility, either alone or together with female infertility, is the cause for why a couple can’t get pregnant at least 40% of the time.
Infection of the Reproductive Tract
Reproductive tract infections can result in infertility. The most common cause of these infections is sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). This can cause pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in the female reproductive system. Men can also become infertile after contracting an STD.
However, not all reproductive tract infections are caused by STDs. For example, some medical procedures can cause an infection.
Medication Side Effects
Some medications may reduce fertility, including:
Allergy medications, which may dry up cervical mucusAntidepressants, which may cause fertility problems for menCertain types of cancer treatment (radiation therapy near reproductive organs)
Obesity
Obesity is one of the leading causes of preventable infertility. Even being slightly overweight can reduce female fertility. Obesity can cause ovulation problems and may reduce sperm health.
Reproductive Tract Blockages or Abnormalities
Problems with the ovaries, fallopian tubes, or uterus can cause fertility problems. Issues with the testes, vas deferens, prostate gland, or seminal vesicles can cause male infertility.
Blockages or abnormalities may be present from birth (congenital abnormalities), the result of an injury or medical procedures, or occur after a disease or infection. Most commonly, blockages are caused by adhesions (scar tissue).
Many people are unaware that they have these conditions. They may cause no symptoms and go undetected during routine medical visits. But specialized fertility testing can uncover them.
Unhealthy Lifestyle Habits
Smoking, excessive drinking, and recreational drugs can reduce fertility for people of all genders. Less dramatically, more common unhealthy lifestyle habits like not getting enough sleep, too much stress, and eating an unhealthy diet may slightly reduce fertility.
Unexplained Infertility
About one in four couples never find out why they can’t conceive. This is known as unexplained infertility.
Fertility Basics
There are many steps in the fertility process. This is what needs to happen for a cisgender, heterosexual couple to conceive without assistance.
Egg and Sperm Production
A woman’s reproductive system must produce the hormones that result in ovulation, which is when an egg is released from one of the ovaries. This occurs once per month during the childbearing years.
A man’s reproductive system must produce sperm cells in the testes. After puberty, new sperm cells are generated daily.
Sexual Intercourse
A couple must have sexual intercourse (or semen must come in contact with the vaginal area) during the five to six days prior to ovulation.
During ejaculation, sperm stored in the vas deferens gets mixed together with semen created in the prostate and seminal vesicles. This mixture of sperm and fluid is forced out from the penis by a series of muscular contractions.
Fertilization
After sexual intercourse, semen collects in the cervical area. Next, sperm cells must swim out from the semen and into the cervical mucus, through the cervical opening into the uterus, and on to the fallopian tubes.
The strongest and healthiest sperm (a very small percentage of the total) linger in the fallopian tubes. After an egg is released from one of the ovaries, it enters the fallopian tubes. In the fallopian tubes, one of the waiting sperm cells burrows itself into the egg. This is the moment of fertilization.
Implantation and Pregnancy
After ovulation, the reproductive system releases a new cocktail of hormones that builds up the endometrium, or uterine lining. The fertilized egg (or embryo) goes through a series of cell divisions. As this is happening, the embryo travels down the fallopian tube into the uterus.
Once the embryo reaches the uterus, it eventually implants itself into the uterine lining, or endometrium. This occurs about four to 10 days after fertilization.
After implantation, the embryo creates both fetal cells and placental cells. The hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), or the "pregnancy hormone," will begin to be produced. About one week later, or approximately 14 days after ovulation, there is enough circulating hCG for a pregnancy test to give a positive result.
How the Female Reproductive System Works
How to Boost Fertility
While some causes of infertility can't be overcome without treatment, you can increase your odds of conception with these simple strategies.
Avoid Douching
Vaginal douching can wash away the valuable cervical mucus you need to get pregnant. Douching can also wash away good bacteria, leading to an increased risk of vaginal infection.
Choose Lubricants Wisely
Personal lubricants, like Astroglide and KY Jelly, are harmful to sperm. However, there are sperm-friendly options, including mineral oil, canola oil, or hydroxyethylcellulose-based lubricants such as Pre-Seed and ConceivEase.
Optimize the Time You Have Sex
You want to have sexual intercourse during your fertile window, which lasts between five and eight days, and occurs just before ovulation. However, keep in mind that the day of ovulation varies; it could be as early as day 10 or as late as day 22. Your odds of conceiving the day before ovulation are between 21% and 34%, and between 8% and 17% four days before ovulation.
Assuming you and your partner are fertile, there are many methods for detecting ovulation so you can determine your fertile window, including:
Charting your body basal temperature
Checking for cervical position changes
Checking your cervical mucus
Tuning into your body’s sexual desire (your libido is higher when you’re most fertile)
Using an ovulation chart, calendar, or calculator
Have Sex More Often
If you have sex every other day or every two days, you're likely to have sex at least once or twice during your most fertile time. Many people think having sex daily is helpful, but sperm takes one or two days to fully mature and regenerate. So if you have sex every day, sperm may be immature.
Improve Your Overall Health
Research has found that some healthy lifestyle habits may lead to improved fertility, or at least a reduced risk of infertility. Making lifestyle changes may or may not impact actual infertility, and it shouldn’t be considered as equally effective as fertility treatments. For example, if your fallopian tubes are blocked, your diet isn’t going to help you conceive naturally.
Consider both making lifestyle changes and getting medical care. Some things you can do that may improve your fertility include:
Eating a wholesome diet, with lots of antioxidant-rich vegetables and fruits, healthy fats like olive oil and nuts, and healthy protein
Exercising, but not over-exercising
Getting enough sleep at night, at the right hours (night-shift workers may be at a higher risk of miscarriage and infertility)
Maintaining a healthy weight—not too heavy or too thin
Practicing mind-body and relaxation techniques
Taking a folic acid supplement
Fertility Testing and Treatment
If you are concerned that you might have a fertility problem, the first person you should speak to is your gynecologist or urologist.
These doctors can perform some basic fertility testing, such as:
An hysterosalpingogram (HSG), which is a special kind of x-ray used to evaluate the uterus and fallopian tubes
Blood work to measure hormone levels
Semen analysis
If you’re feeling anxious about fertility testing, you’re not alone. Try to remember that testing is the first step to getting help.
What to Expect During Fertility Tests
Depending on your age and the results of your fertility testing, your doctor may try to treat you with low-tech fertility treatments (like Clomid, a medicine that helps stimulate ovlulation), or refer you to a reproductive endocrinologist.
A reproductive endocrinologist is a physician with special training as a fertility specialist. They work in a fertility clinic, together with other fertility technicians, doctors, and nurses. Once you’re referred to a fertility clinic, further testing may be conducted.
Your fertility treatment options will depend on the cause of your infertility, and may include:
Assisted reproductive technologies (ART): In vitro fertilization (IVF), gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT)
Injectable fertility drugs: Gonadotropins (Gonal-F, Follistim, Ovidrel)
Insemination: Intracervical insemination (ICI), intrauterine insemination (IUI), intratubal insemination (ITU), intravaginal insemination (IVI)
Oral fertility drugs: Arimidex (anastrozole), Clomid (clomiphene), Femara (letrozole)
Surgery: Laparoscopic surgery, ovarian drilling
Third-party reproduction: Using an egg donor, embryo donor, sperm donor, or gestational carrier
Treatment of an underlying medical condition, or tapering of any medications causing reproductive side effects
Weight loss and other lifestyle changes
As many as 80% to 90% of couples are treated with medications or surgery. IVF is not required for the majority of infertile couples.
An Overview of 17 Fertility Treatments
Coping With Infertility
Coping with infertility is not easy. When you don’t get pregnant as quickly as you expected, it’s normal to experience stress. Research has found that women with infertility experience similar levels of psychological stress as those who face cancer, HIV, and chronic pain.
To help manage this stress, consider joining a support group. Connecting with others who understand the unique frustrations and grief of infertility can help you and your partner feel less isolated.
Self-care is also important. In addition to eating healthy, exercising, and getting enough sleep, self-care also means managing stress. Mind-body therapies like yoga and acupuncture can help reduce fertility stress.
You might also want to get involved in the life of a child, whether through friends or family or with a volunteer group. While being around children may be painful during the early days of infertility, over time some people find involvement with kids to be a healing experience.
You should also feel empowered to seek professional help if you need it. A trained infertility counselor can help you better navigate the anxiety and depression that often accompany infertility.
Coping When Trying to Get Pregnant Overwhelms You
A Word From Verywell
If you’re facing infertility, you have a reason for hope. The majority of couples will be able to get pregnant with the help of fertility treatments, surgery, or lifestyle changes. For those who don’t conceive even with help, there are alternative options for family building or moving on with your life.
Whatever you do, don’t keep your fertility problems a secret. There is no reason to be ashamed, and you don’t need to deal with infertility alone. Loved ones want to help, so let them.
10 Sources
Verywell Family uses only high-quality sources, including peer-reviewed studies, to support the facts within our articles. Read our editorial process to learn more about how we fact-check and keep our content accurate, reliable, and trustworthy.
National Institutes of Health. How common is infertility?.
Direkvand-Moghadam A, Delpisheh A, Khosravi A. Epidemiology of female infertility; A review of literature. Biosciences Biotech Res Asia. 2013;10(2):559-567. doi:10.13005/bbra/1165
Turner KA, Rambhatla A, Schon S, et al. Male infertility is a women’s health issue—research and clinical evaluation of male infertility is needed. Cells. 2020;9(4):990. doi:10.3390/cells9040990
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). PID statistics.
Ozcan Dag Z, Dilbaz B. Impact of obesity on infertility in women. J Turkish German Gynecol Assoc. 2015;16(2):111-117. doi:10.5152/jtgga.2015.15232
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Douching.
Steiner AZ, Long DL, Tanner C, Herring AH. Effect of vaginal lubricants on natural fertility. Obstet Gynecol. 2012;120(1):44-51. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e31825b87ae
Stirnemann JJ, Samson A, Bernard J-P, Thalabard J-C. Day-specific probabilities of conception in fertile cycles resulting in spontaneous pregnancies. Hum Reprod. 2013;28(4):1110-1116. doi:10.1093/humrep/des449
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. What infertility treatments are available?.
Schwerdtfeger KL, Shreffler KM. Trauma of pregnancy loss and infertility among mothers and involuntarily childless women in the United States. J Loss Trauma. 2009;14(3):211-227. doi:10.1080/15325020802537468
Additional Reading
American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Quick facts about infertility.
By Rachel Gurevich, RN
Rachel Gurevich is a fertility advocate, author, and recipient of The Hope Award for Achievement, from Resolve: The National Infertility Association. She is a professional member of the Association of Health Care Journalists and has been writing about women’s health since 2001. Rachel uses her own experiences with infertility to write compassionate, practical, and supportive articles.
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Key facts
Infertility is a disease of the male or female reproductive system defined by the failure to achieve a pregnancy after 12 months or more of regular unprotected sexual intercourse.
Infertility affects millions of people – and has an impact on their families and communities. Estimates suggest that approximately one in every six people of reproductive age worldwide experience infertility in their lifetime.
In the male reproductive system, infertility is most commonly caused by problems in the ejection of semen (1), absence or low levels of sperm, or abnormal shape (morphology) and movement (motility) of the sperm.
In the female reproductive system, infertility may be caused by a range of abnormalities of the ovaries, uterus, fallopian tubes, and the endocrine system, among others.
Infertility can be primary or secondary. Primary infertility is when a pregnancy has never been achieved by a person, and secondary infertility is when at least one prior pregnancy has been achieved.
Fertility care encompasses the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of infertility. Equal and equitable access to fertility care remains a challenge in most countries; particularly in low and middle-income countries. Fertility care is rarely prioritized in national universal health coverage benefit packages.
What causes infertility?Infertility may be caused by a number of different factors, in either the male or female reproductive systems. However, it is sometimes not possible to explain the causes of infertility.In the female reproductive system, infertility may be caused by:tubal disorders such as blocked fallopian tubes, which are in turn caused by untreated sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or complications of unsafe abortion, postpartum sepsis or abdominal/pelvic surgery;uterine disorders which could be inflammatory in nature (such as such endometriosis), congenital in nature (such as septate uterus), or benign in nature (such as fibroids);disorders of the ovaries, such as polycystic ovarian syndrome and other follicular disorders;disorders of the endocrine system causing imbalances of reproductive hormones. The endocrine system includes hypothalamus and the pituitary glands. Examples of common disorders affecting this system include pituitary cancers and hypopituitarism.The relative importance of these causes of female infertility may differ from country to country, for example due to differences in the background prevalence of STIs, or differing ages of populations studied (4).In the male reproductive system, infertility may be caused by:obstruction of the reproductive tract causing dysfunctionalities in the ejection of semen. This blockage can occur in the tubes that carry semen (such as ejaculatory ducts and seminal vesicles). Blockages are commonly due to injuries or infections of the genital tract.hormonal disorders leading to abnormalities in hormones produced by the pituitary gland, hypothalamus and testicles. Hormones such as testosterone regulate sperm production. Example of disorders that result in hormonal imbalance include pituitary or testicular cancers.testicular failure to produce sperm, for example due to varicoceles or medical treatments that impair sperm-producing cells (such as chemotherapy).abnormal sperm function and quality. Conditions or situations that cause abnormal shape (morphology) and movement (motility) of the sperm negatively affect fertility. For example, the use of anabolic steroids can cause abnormal semen parameters such sperm count and shape (5).Lifestyle factors such as smoking, excessive alcohol intake and obesity can affect fertility. In addition, exposure to environmental pollutants and toxins can be directly toxic to gametes (eggs and sperm), resulting in their decreased numbers and poor quality (5,6).Why addressing infertility is important?Every human being has a right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. Individuals and couples have the right to decide the number, timing and spacing of their children. Infertility can negate the realization of these essential human rights. Addressing infertility is therefore an important part of realizing the right of individuals and couples to found a family (7).A wide variety of people, including heterosexual couples, same-sex partners, older persons, individuals who are not in sexual relationships and those with certain medical conditions, such as some HIV sero-discordant couples and cancer survivors, may require infertility management and fertility care services. Inequities and disparities in access to fertility care services adversely affect the poor, unmarried, uneducated, unemployed and other marginalized populations.Addressing infertility can also mitigate gender inequality. Although both women and men can experience infertility, women in a relationship with a man are often perceived to suffer from infertility, regardless of whether they are infertile or not. Infertility has significant negative social impacts on the lives of infertile couples and particularly women, who frequently experience violence, divorce, social stigma, emotional stress, depression, anxiety and low self-esteem. In some settings, fear of infertility can deter women and men from using contraception if they feel socially pressured to prove their fertility at an early age because of a high social value of childbearing. In such situations, education and awareness-raising interventions to address understanding of the prevalence and determinants of fertility and infertility is essential.Addressing challengesAvailability, access, and quality of interventions to address infertility remain a challenge in most countries. Diagnosis and treatment of infertility is often not prioritized in national population and development policies and reproductive health strategies and are rarely covered through public health financing. Moreover, a lack of trained personnel and the necessary equipment and infrastructure, and the currently high costs of treatment medicines, are major barriers even for countries that are actively addressing the needs of people with infertility.While assisted reproduction technologies (ART) have been available for more than three decades, with more than 5 million children born worldwide from ART interventions such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), these technologies are still largely unavailable, inaccessible and unaffordable in many parts of the world, particularly in low and middle-income countries (LMIC). Government policies could mitigate the many inequities in access to safe and effective fertility care. To effectively address infertility, health policies need to recognize that infertility is a disease that can often be prevented, thereby mitigating the need for costly and poorly accessible treatments. Incorporating fertility awareness in national comprehensive sexuality education programmes, promoting healthy lifestyles to reduce behavioural risks, including prevention, diagnosis and early treatment of STIs, preventing complications of unsafe abortion, postpartum sepsis and abdominal/pelvic surgery, and addressing environmental toxins associated with infertility, are policy and programmatic interventions that all governments can implement.In addition, enabling laws and policies that regulate third party reproduction and ART are essential to ensure universal access without discrimination and to protect and promote the human rights of all parties involved. Once fertility policies are in place, it is essential to ensure that their implementation is monitored, and the quality of services is continually improved.WHO responseWHO recognizes that the provision of high-quality services for family-planning, including fertility care services, is one of the core elements of reproductive health. Recognizing the importance and impact of infertility on people’s quality of life and well-being, WHO is committed to addressing infertility and fertility care by:Collaborating with partners to conduct global epidemiological and etiological research into infertility.Engaging and facilitating policy dialogue with countries worldwide to frame infertility within an enabling legal and policy environment.Supporting the generation of data on the burden of infertility to inform resource allocation and provision of services.Developing guidelines on the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of male and female infertility, as part of the global norms and standards of quality care related to fertility care.Continually revising and updating other normative products, including the WHO laboratory manual for the examination and processing of human semen.Collaborating with relevant stakeholders including academic centres, ministries of health, other UN organizations, non-state actors (NSAs) and other partners to strengthen political commitment, availability and health system capacity to deliver fertility care globally.Providing country-level technical support to member states to develop or strengthen implementation of national fertility policies and services.ReferencesWorld Health Organization (WHO). International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11) Geneva: WHO 2018.Mascarenhas MN, Flaxman SR, Boerma T, et al. National, regional, and global trends in infertility prevalence since 1990: a systematic analysis of 277 health surveys. PLoS Med 2012;9(12):e1001356. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1001356 [published Online First: 2012/12/29]Boivin J, Bunting L, Collins JA, et al. International estimates of infertility prevalence and treatment-seeking: potential need and demand for infertility medical care. Human reproduction (Oxford, England) 2007;22(6):1506-12. doi: 10.1093/humrep/dem046 [published Online First: 2007/03/23]Rutstein SO, Shah IH. Infecundity infertility and childlessness in developing countries. Geneva: World Health Organization 2004.Gore AC, Chappell VA, Fenton SE, et al. EDC-2: The Endocrine Society's Second Scientific Statement on Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals. Endocrine Reviews 2015;36(6):E1-E150. doi: 10.1210/er.2015-1010Segal TR, Giudice LC. Before the beginning: environmental exposures and reproductive and obstetrical outcomes. Fertility and Sterility 2019;112(4):613-21.Zegers‐Hochschild F, Dickens BM, Dughman‐Manzur S. Human rights to in vitro fertilization. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics 2013;123(1):86-89.
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Environmental factors in declining human fertility | Nature Reviews Endocrinology
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Review Article
Published: 15 December 2021
Environmental factors in declining human fertility
Niels E. Skakkebæk
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4282-80201,2,3, Rune Lindahl-Jacobsen4, Hagai Levine5, Anna-Maria Andersson
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7300-16591,2, Niels Jørgensen
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4827-08381,2, Katharina M. Main1,2,3, Øjvind Lidegaard3,6, Lærke Priskorn1,2, Stine A. Holmboe1,2, Elvira V. Bräuner
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9183-47961,2, Kristian Almstrup
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1832-03071,2, Luiz R. Franca7, Ariana Znaor
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5849-47828, Andreas Kortenkamp
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9055-97299, Roger J. Hart
ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6610-304010,11 & …Anders Juul1,2,3 Show authors
Nature Reviews Endocrinology
volume 18, pages 139–157 (2022)Cite this article
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Endocrine reproductive disordersEndocrinology
AbstractA severe decline in child births has occurred over the past half century, which will lead to considerable population declines, particularly in industrialized regions. A crucial question is whether this decline can be explained by economic and behavioural factors alone, as suggested by demographic reports, or to what degree biological factors are also involved. Here, we discuss data suggesting that human reproductive health is deteriorating in industrialized regions. Widespread infertility and the need for assisted reproduction due to poor semen quality and/or oocyte failure are now major health issues. Other indicators of declining reproductive health include a worldwide increasing incidence in testicular cancer among young men and alterations in twinning frequency. There is also evidence of a parallel decline in rates of legal abortions, revealing a deterioration in total conception rates. Subtle alterations in fertility rates were already visible around 1900, and most industrialized regions now have rates below levels required to sustain their populations. We hypothesize that these reproductive health problems are partially linked to increasing human exposures to chemicals originating directly or indirectly from fossil fuels. If the current infertility epidemic is indeed linked to such exposures, decisive regulatory action underpinned by unconventional, interdisciplinary research collaborations will be needed to reverse the trends.Key points
Industrialized regions have birth rates so low that their populations cannot be sustained; declines in birth rates are generally ascribed to socioeconomic and cultural factors, although human infertility is widespread.
Decreasing fertility rates were already recorded around 1900 in Denmark, a few decades after the beginning of utilization of fossil fuels that were, and still are, drivers of modern industrialization and wealth.
We hypothesize that declines in fertility rates might be linked to exposures to chemicals originating from fossil fuels causing human reproductive problems and cancer; early gestation might be a sensitive period.
The current unsustainable birth rates will eventually result in decreasing populations.
A key research challenge remains: how to distinguish biological from socioeconomic and behavioural factors?
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Fig. 1: Total fertility rates in the European Union, Japan and the USA, 1960–2018.Fig. 2: Total fertility rate, Denmark, 1901–2019.Fig. 3: Changes in average sperm concentrations 1973–2011.Fig. 4: Testicular cancer incidence trends in selected countries/regions worldwide.Fig. 5: Illustration of epigenetic drift.Fig. 6: Adverse outcome pathway network for the induction of male reproductive malformations.Fig. 7: Expression of the embryonic marker OCT4 in adult germ cell neoplasia in situ is similar to expression in germ cells (gonocytes) in normal fetal gonads.Fig. 8: Testicular dysgenesis syndrome.Fig. 9: Levels of unsustainable fertility rates and population sizes (newborn babies) over three generations.
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Download referencesAcknowledgementsWe thank M. Laversanne from the International Agency for Research on Cancer for assistance with the first draft of Fig. 4. Where authors are identified as personnel of the International Agency for Research on Cancer/World Health Organization, the authors alone are responsible for the views expressed in this article and they do not necessarily represent the decisions, policy or views of the International Agency for Research on Cancer/World Health Organization. The authors acknowledge financial support from the Innovation Fund Denmark, Danish Ministry of Environment (CEHOS), Danish Ministry of Health, The ReproUnion consortium/EU Interreg ÖKS, Brazilian institutions (CNPq and CAPES) and Minas Gerais State Foundation (FAPEMIG). Finally, the authors thank A. Wahlberg, Department of Anthropology, University of Copenhagen, and K. Kjær, GLOBE Institute, University of Copenhagen, for most valuable discussions prior to writing the paper.Author informationAuthors and AffiliationsDepartment of Growth and Reproduction, Copenhagen University Hospital — Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, DenmarkNiels E. Skakkebæk, Anna-Maria Andersson, Niels Jørgensen, Katharina M. Main, Lærke Priskorn, Stine A. Holmboe, Elvira V. Bräuner, Kristian Almstrup & Anders JuulInternational Center for Research and Research Training in Endocrine Disruption of Male Reproduction and Child Health (EDMaRC), Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DenmarkNiels E. Skakkebæk, Anna-Maria Andersson, Niels Jørgensen, Katharina M. Main, Lærke Priskorn, Stine A. Holmboe, Elvira V. Bräuner, Kristian Almstrup & Anders JuulDepartment of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DenmarkNiels E. Skakkebæk, Katharina M. Main, Øjvind Lidegaard & Anders JuulDepartment of Public Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, DenmarkRune Lindahl-JacobsenSchool of Public Health, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, IsraelHagai LevineDepartment of Gynecology, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DenmarkØjvind LidegaardDepartment of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, BrazilLuiz R. Franca Cancer Surveillance Branch, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, FranceAriana ZnaorDivision of Environmental Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UKAndreas KortenkampDivision of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, AustraliaRoger J. HartFertility Specialists of Western Australia, Bethesda Hospital, Claremont, Western Australia, AustraliaRoger J. HartAuthorsNiels E. SkakkebækView author publicationsYou can also search for this author in
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PubMed Google ScholarContributionsN.E.S., R.L.-J., A.-M.A., S.A.H., E.V.B., K.A., L.R.F., A.Z., R.J.H. and A.J. researched data for the article, contributed substantially to discussion of the content, wrote the article and reviewed and/or edited the manuscript before submission. H.L., N.J., K.M.M., Ø.L. and A.K. contributed substantially to discussion of the content, wrote the article and reviewed and/or edited the manuscript before submission. L.P. researched data for the article, contributed substantially to discussion of the content and reviewed and/or edited the manuscript before submission.Corresponding authorCorrespondence to
Niels E. Skakkebæk.Ethics declarations
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R.J.H. is the Medical Director of Fertility Specialists of Western Australia and has equity interests in Western IVF. The other authors declare no competing interests.
Additional informationPeer review informationNature Reviews Endocrinology thanks A.-S. Parent and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.Publisher’s noteSpringer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.Related linksDatabank, World Development Indicators: https://databank.worldbank.org/reports.aspx?source=world-development-indicatorsFamily Planning 2020: https://www.familyplanning2020.org/Statistics Denmark: http://www.statistikbanken.dk/statbank5a/default.asp?w=1600Supplementary informationSupplementary InformationRights and permissionsReprints and permissionsAbout this articleCite this articleSkakkebæk, N.E., Lindahl-Jacobsen, R., Levine, H. et al. Environmental factors in declining human fertility.
Nat Rev Endocrinol 18, 139–157 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-021-00598-8Download citationAccepted: 03 November 2021Published: 15 December 2021Issue Date: March 2022DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-021-00598-8Share this articleAnyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:Get shareable linkSorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.Copy to clipboard
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